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Authors: Paul Kleinman

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Early Dynastic Egypt
Around 3100 b.c., Upper and Lower Egypt united under the pharaoh Menes. Memphis, a part of Lower Egypt, was established as the capital of the land and became critical in trade and agriculture. It also provided a work force. Notable from this time period were the mastaba tombs, which were large rectangular, flat-roofed structures made of stone and mud-bricks that were built to celebrate pharaohs who had died.

COMPOSITION

Basic Parts of a Sentence
There are three main parts found in a sentence; the subject; the verb; and, often, the object. The subject is usually the noun, and it is who or what the sentence is about. The verb then follows the subject, indicating what action takes place. Lastly, the object follows the verb and is what receives the action. In the sentence “Tom threw the ball to Sally,” Tom is the subject because the sentence is about him. The throwing of the ball is the verb, and Sally is the object. She receives the ball that the subject threw toward her.

INCA MATHEMATICS

The Quipu
The Incas created a tool called the quipu. This was not a calculator used to add or subtract, but rather a storage device used to record. It is this use of the quipu that allowed the Incas to successfully create roads, sophisticated agriculture, administration, and textile designs. The tool was made entirely of strings that were then tied into knots. Each knot represented a number, with a positional base ten representation, a system that we still use to this day.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Neurons
The nervous system works via nerve cells, or neurons. These cells process and transmit information through chemical and electrical signaling. What makes neurons different from other cells is that they have very specialized extensions called axons and dendrites. Dendrites receive the information, and the axon carries the message to target cells.

FRENCH

French Consonants
French consonants are pronounced similarly to the way they are in English. However, there are two major exceptions. Consonants at the end of a word (except
c
,
r
,
f
, and
l
) are not pronounced, and unlike in English, you are not supposed to linger on consonants. They should be short and quick, so that you can move on to the next vowel. The letter
r
is also pronounced from the back of your throat.

LESSON 3C
ANCIENT EGYPT

The Old Kingdom
The Old Kingdom refers to the rule of the Third Dynasty to the Sixth Dynasty from 2686 to 2181 b.c. This is a time defined by a flourishing economy, a well-defined justice system, and a strong government. It is during this time that the famous pyramids of Giza were built, marking great artistic and technological advancements. A new class of educated scribes also arose.

COMPOSITION

Modifiers
A modifier is any word, clause, or phrase that adds meaning to another word or part of a sentence. There are two types of modifiers, pre-modifiers and post-modifiers. The head is any word that determines the nature of the sentence. A pre-modifier goes before the head, and a post-modifier goes after the head. For example, “history book,” is an example of a pre-modifier, and “A book on history” is an example of a post-modifier.

INCA MATHEMATICS

How the Quipu Works
The quipu was used in a truly ingenious way. The knots placed on the string were put in different positions representing the base ten counting system. Knots near the end of the string represented the digits. A space followed by more knots represented the tens. If another space was left and then followed by more knots, this represented the hundreds, and so on. For example, to represent the number 246 on the quipu, there would be six knots, a space, then four knots, a space, and then two knots.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The Central Nervous System
The central nervous system consists of two of the most important parts of the nervous system: the brain and the spinal cord. The brain is considered to be the command center of the nervous system, since it controls all of the workings of your body. The central nervous system collaborates with the peripheral nervous system in controlling the behavior of the body.

FRENCH

French Vowels
Unlike consonants, French vowels are pronounced differently than they are in English. Vowels do not form diphthongs like in English. Instead of closing the vowel with a “y” or “w” sound, the vowels stay constant, and the tongue remains tense while pronouncing them. The letters
a
,
o
, and
u
are hard vowels, and
e
and
i
are soft vowels. When followed by
m
or
n
, vowels sound nasal, meaning that when pronouncing them, air escapes both the mouth and the nose.

LESSON 3D
ANCIENT EGYPT
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