101 Things You Didn't Know About Da Vinci (6 page)

As commerce grew, people in the trading and banking industries came to towns to interact and profit. Trade opened up the world beyond the confines of traditional town walls, and openness to new ideas and innovations spread to other parts of society. Towns and cities grew, and peasants migrating to towns from the countryside helped to create a new class structure. These former country folks became the working class, whereas the noble people and wealthy merchants became the ruling class. These urban elite led the Renaissance's political and cultural changes, while the rural poor participated very little.

The closing of trade routes to China during the Italian Renaissance also had a big economic influence. Beginning with thirteenth-century Venetian explorer Marco Polo and his famous trip to China, Italy established complicated routes to China and the Far East to trade luxuries like spices and silk. However, when the Ming Dynasty came to power in the fourteenth century, China closed trade with outsiders. Suddenly, the wealth and resources that would have previously gone into foreign trade were instead available for projects within Italy. The rich ruling merchant class began to invest in Italian society, commissioning myriad works of art and architecture that enriched the culture. Individual artists who received these commissions, like Leonardo, also benefited from this process.

Another innovation, the printing press, had a large effect on the spread of knowledge during the Renaissance. In 1452, the printing of Johannes Gutenberg's famous Gutenberg Bible served as an early example of movable type's possibilities (see number 61). While Germany took the early lead in printing efforts, Italy soon took up the challenge, establishing presses that printed affordable copies of classical texts and other works. Suddenly, knowledge was easier to spread—libraries could serve as repositories for information, and people could afford to buy printed books instead of expensive hand-copied volumes. Leonardo da Vinci, among many others, gleaned much knowledge in his early years from the volumes of books available in his family and friends' libraries. And he definitely put this knowledge to good use.

19
The importance of being sponsored

Everyone knows about the stereotype of the starving artist. Even during the Renaissance, when artists were important members of society, patronage was one of the only ways an artist could earn a living while devoting himself to—you guessed it—making art. While some Renaissance artists had to find other work to pay the bills, many searched high and low for a patron—someone to sponsor their artistic development. And having a patron was much better than the Renaissance equivalent of waiting tables!

The idea of having the Church or other groups sponsor artists and particular artworks began well before the Renaissance. In Medieval times the Church sponsored many religious works of art, and during the Middle Ages there were groups of secular politicians (kings, noblemen, and princes) who would come together in sponsoring artists to create both religious and secular works.

The Renaissance took patronage to a new level. In some cases, a wealthy individual would bring an artist into his home, providing food and shelter in exchange for art. Alternatively, a person or group would commission a particular work of art, and the artist would be employed until the work's completion. Depending on the size and scope, these commissioned works could take years to finish. In that respect, these two types of patronage were sometimes nearly equivalent, although commissioned artwork gave the artist more independence than the artist-in-residence option.

Religion was one of the most significant reasons for art's popularity during this time. Sponsoring a religious work of art made you appear more pious, putting you in good stead with the Church and conferring greater prestige on your family. Wealthy families lived in the public eye; to be perceived as wealthy, people had to surround themselves with beauty—particularly beauty created expressly for them. The ability to afford commissioned artwork was a sign of power, and Renaissance politicians and other leading figures were not shy about flaunting their wealth. Leonardo appeared, for a time, to be happy to oblige the wealthy in this endeavor. And who can blame him? If nothing else, it probably paid well.

Patronage was also a matter of simple aesthetics. In a world before television, movies, and popular culture, appreciating fine sculpture or painting was a pleasure for many people. Those who could afford art created by the masters chose to support it, and in return, they were able to surround themselves with the most incredible and skilled art of the period.

In addition to wealthy individuals (including kings and political figures), collective patronage was also popular during the Renaissance. For example, the wool guild patronized artwork in the Florence Cathedral and sponsored a competition for the design of the baptistery doors. Not too different from corporate sponsorships of cultural events today!

The relationship between patron and artist was usually quite formal. Most of the time a contract was involved, requiring the artist to create a specified number of pieces. Some patrons, particularly ones with a lot of cash to throw around, sponsored artists to work more or less at their whim. If this arrangement worked, then everyone was happy; if the obligations of the contract weren't met, however, patronage could be terminated and the artist would be dismissed. Many different patrons sponsored Leonardo over the course of his life. While in most cases he was likely terminated for reasons beyond his control, it's also possible that Leonardo ended some of the relationships on his own.

Generally, when artist and patron argued, it was over money—as in the artist wanted a raise but the patron didn't want to shell out. In Leonardo da Vinci's case, there were lots of arguments over his inability to complete projects. You can't blame the patrons for wanting what they paid for. In some cases, the style or content of a particular work sparked disagreements. Early in the Renaissance, patrons more or less had complete control over their artists. As the Renaissance progressed and art became more highly valued, however, artists demanded more freedom when it came to their work.

20
Lorenzo the Magnificent

Want a way to enhance your political reputation? Today's politicians might support a worthy cause, but it was different during the Renaissance. Back then sponsoring an artist was all the rage. Some patrons would actually specify the quantity of gold, silver, and other precious metals they wanted artists to include in their paintings! These measurements assured patrons of bragging rights for having the most expensive sculpture or the most precious painting.

In Renaissance Florence, the Medicis were the most important political family (see number 15). The richest family in Italy (and perhaps in Europe), they spent a great deal of money building churches, supporting art, giving to charity, and constructing family monuments to ensure their continued political and social control. They were like Renaissance Vanderbilts or Rockefellers. During Leonardo's time, Lorenzo de' Medici (also known as Lorenzo the Magnificent) ruled Florence. Thanks to Lorenzo's avid support of the arts, Florence rose to a central position in the Renaissance artistic world. As the cultural center of Europe, Florence also became the founding location of the new humanist movement. Florence was certainly the place to be!

Under the Medici family, patronage grew to include more than just single works of art. The Medicis commissioned not only gardens, fountains, and public sculptures, but also residences, government centers, fortified compounds, artistic institutions, and even intricately staged public events. Was there anything they didn't commission? When you're the richest family in Europe, you get what you want.

By 1480, Leonardo had established his own studio in Florence and became well known enough to acquire a patron. He became a member of the garden of San Marcos, which was under Lorenzo de' Medici's patronage. (Lorenzo was Michelangelo's patron as well.)

During this time, Leonardo was commissioned to paint
Adoration of the Magi
for the monastery altar of San Donato Scopeto. The scene shows the Three Kings along with Mary and her infant son. Although Leonardo was given more than two years to work on this piece, even that wasn't enough time. He managed to finish enough of it to show that he was well on his way to breaking away from Verrocchio's influence. The style is different from his previous works, with a triangular grouping of people in the foreground and an elaborate background that combines natural and architectural elements. While many works of the day were composed linearly, a straight line was just too boring for Leonardo.
Adoration
has a balanced, symmetrical structure, again showcasing Leonardo's rapidly developing independence.

While under Lorenzo de' Medici's patronage, Leonardo worked on other paintings such as
San Gerolamo
. Unfortunately, this patron-artist arrangement did not last for long. Leonardo was a strong-spirited artist with a reputation for not finishing everything he started, and Lorenzo the Magnificent expected his sponsored works to be completed. With a name like Magnificent, you expect things to be done your way! After a few years, it was time for Leonardo to move on.

21
Playing up to the duke

In 1482, Leonardo applied for patronage with the soon to be Duke of Milan, Ludovico Sforza. Like the Medici family in Florence, the Sforzas controlled Milan at this time. However, unlike the banking Medicis, the Sforzas were warriors. Some members of the Sforza family were actually
condottierei
, mercenary soldiers who fought in wars for the highest bidder. The Sforzas rose through the military classes over time, eventually gaining control over Milan from about 1450 to 1535. Just imagine the young Leonardo trying to find his place working for them.

Ludovico became duke in 1494. Although he initially aligned himself with the French King Charles, he later fought against France in an attempt to protect Milan. Duke Sforza was certainly quite a warrior, at one point making weapons from up to seventy tons of bronze that had previously been earmarked for one of Leonardo's sculptures (see number 29). Leonardo couldn't have been too pleased about that turn of events.

Leonardo likely learned about military equipment and machinery during his tenure under the duke. He became Ludovico's court painter, a relationship that lasted until 1499. In that year, Sforza's land was invaded and he was forcibly driven out of Milan. The French King Louis XII invoked a claim on Sforza's property, and Ludovico ultimately died in a French prison. So much for the great warrior, and for Leonardo's great patron.

While Sforza spent a lot of time embroiled in political turmoil, he made a point of investing in the arts and especially in Leonardo da Vinci. Under Sforza's patronage, Leonardo created some of his most famous works. When applying for the job with Sforza, Leonardo wrote a detailed list of his engineering and military credentials, with his artistic skills listed almost as an afterthought. Fortunately, Sforza took advantage of all of Leonardo's talents!

Leonardo came into his own while under the Duke of Milan's patronage. He got the chance to experiment with painting, sculpture, weapons design, architecture, and machinery. Leonardo was an artist, but he was also a realist; he understood the necessity of defense, even though he didn't agree with the concept of war. Of course, he also didn't want to alienate his sponsor. As the duke's chief military engineer, Leonardo invented several different war machines and weapons during this period.

Beyond his military inventions, Leonardo created two of his most famous paintings while in Milan. He started
The Virgin of the Rocks
in 1483, a painting intended for the altar at the Chapel of the Immacolata, located in the church of San Francesco Grande. The contract was extremely specific: The monks wanted the painting to be composed in a certain way, and it had to be done using certain materials. As you'll see in number 36, the notoriously individualistic Leonardo quickly ran into problems.

During this period, Leonardo also began work on
The Last Supper
(see number 37). Commissioned by the Duke of Milan himself, this work was to be painted on the refectory wall of the family chapel, the church of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan. The giant mural was almost thirty feet long—pretty amazing that it was actually completed. However, it began to deteriorate almost immediately, most likely due to the type of paints Leonardo used and the extreme humidity of the refectory's walls. Many attempts were made to restore it over time, culminating with a painstaking effort finished in 1999.

22
Look out, it's Cesare Borgia!

One of the Renaissance's more notorious political figures, Cesare Borgia (the Duke of Valencia) lived from 1476 to 1507. Born out of wedlock, he was actually the son of Pope Alexander VI. Initially, Borgia set out on the path to become a cleric, but he wound up as the Archbishop of Valencia (modern-day Spain) while his father was traveling down the road to papacy. Supposedly one of his father's favorites, Borgia probably used his family connections to obtain several official positions.

You may recognize the name Cesare Borgia as the murdering Renaissance politico who killed his own brother. Rumor has it that he did indeed murder his sibling, Giovanni, in 1497. There isn't much proof, although Cesare was said to have been jealous of his brother's high social position, and may have also fought with him over a woman. He had a violent reputation and may have been responsible for several other murders. Sounds like an all-around nice guy, right?

In 1498, Borgia did an about-face, changing his unruly ways after assuming the role of general of the Church. Because he was the illegitimate son of a priest, he had a hard time finding a suitable royal bride, so he spent much of the following year traveling, promoting his career, and dealing with various responsibilities. He also led the efforts to unite the fighting Italian city-states.

By the early 1500s, Borgia owned land all over Italy, at least part of which he had taken by force. He was quite a character—in between the murdering and the stealing, somehow he found time to be crowned Duke of Romagna for a period! As his power grew, so did his enemies. When his father died in 1503, Cesare was forced to leave Rome. It all went downhill from there. His power slowly waned, his lands were overtaken, and his castles fell into his enemies' hands. Borgia was imprisoned on several occasions and, in a fitting end to a life of crime, he was killed while attempting to take over a castle in 1507.