A Ton of Crap (15 page)

Rise of the Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire arose in the early fourteenth century, just as the Roman Empire began to fall. It was originally created when the empire of the Seljuk Turks broke down. As the Ottomans began absorbing other states, by the reign of Muhammad II in 1451, all local Turkish dynasties had ended. Under Osman I and subsequent rulers, many attacks were aimed at the Byzantine Empire.

LANGUAGE

Linguistics
Linguistics is the study of human languages, and it can be broken down into three categories: grammar (the rules used when speaking the language), meaning (how a language uses references to process and assign meaning), and its context (the evolution of language). Linguists believe the ability to learn and communicate with language is an innate process for humans, similar to our ability to walk.

CHINESE MATHEMATICS

Math of the Han Dynasty
In the Han Dynasty, which lasted from 206 b.c. to a.d. 220, numbers were developed. These numbers were put into a place value decimal system and used with a counting board. Two famous mathematicians of this time, Liu Xin and Zhang Heng, made many advancements in learning, such as the number pi and astronomy.
The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art
was a book from a.d. 179 that taught how to use math in everyday life, as well as advanced lessons such as linear equations.

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Exhalation
Inside of the lungs are tiny sacs called alveoli. The inhaled oxygen passes through the alveoli and then diffuses into the arterial blood through the capillaries. As this is happening, the veins send waste-laden blood carrying carbon dioxide into the alveoli and this carbon dioxide comes out as you exhale. Both inhalation and exhalation are made possible by the diaphragm muscle below the lungs, which contracts and relaxes.

GERMAN

Old German
Old German was used from 750 to 1050. Old Low German was known as Old Saxon. This was spoken by people of the northwest coast of Germany and in the Netherlands. During the barbarian invasion, or the migration period, the sound of the German language began to change. This is known as the High German consonant shift, and it’s what began to distinguish Old High German from Old Saxon.

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE

The Ottoman Empire Expands
From the reign of Muhammad II onward, the Ottoman Empire expanded widely over the land. In 1453, the Ottomans took over Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire. Expansion of the Ottoman Empire reached its peak in the sixteenth century under Sultan Selim I and Süleyman I. The empire expanded to include Hungary, Transylvania, Persia, Egypt, Syria, and Greece.

LANGUAGE

Semantics
Language assigns a meaning to a sign. The lexicon is the array of signs, which are arbitrary and connected to specific meanings. In other words, the lexicon is the words you know in a language. A lexeme is a single sign that is representative of a particular meaning. For example,
dog
only means one thing. A dog can never be mistaken for a cat or an elephant.

CHINESE MATHEMATICS

Math of the Tang Dynasty
By the Tang Dynasty, which lasted from 618 to 907, mathematics became standard in the great schools of China. Mathematician Wang Xiaotong wrote a book which included the first cubic equations. The Chinese of the Tang Dynasty excelled in complex algebra, binomial theorems, and geometry; however, early forms of trigonometry sent over from India, which had been translated into Chinese, were not widely appreciated.

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The Lungs
The surface area of the lung is larger than the surface area of your skin. If you were to line up all of the airways and air sacs inside of the lungs, the distance would cover more than 100 square yards. The lungs are the second line of defense against harmful materials that are inhaled, second to the nose. Mucus is produced inside of the lungs, which traps inhaled agents and provides white blood cells for protection.

GERMAN

Middle German
From Old Saxon came Middle Low German. This was the language spoken around the North Sea and Baltic Sea, and it had a heavy influence on the Nordic languages. From Old High German came Middle High German, which was used from 1050 to 1350. The High and Low refer to which part of the country the people lived in. During this time, a written language developed and Middle High German replaced Latin in official writings.

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE