Authors: Mickey Huff
Censored 2012 (52 page)
Propaganda has always run the risk of a boomerang event, in the event it is exposed. But whereas in earlier times it might take too long to counter falsehoods spread just before an election, today false allegations might be swiftly and successfully rebutted, especially if they spark public indignation. The problem for the general public will be to decide who gives reliable news reports and who does not. This will involve some investment of time, but responsible citizenship will require a measure of this involvement, beginning with the study of videos like
Outfoxed
, which shows the bias in Fox News and the power of the latter-day Lord Northcliffe, Rupert Murdoch.
RANDAL MARLIN
, AB Princeton, MA McGill, PhD Toronto, is adjunct professor of philosophy at Carleton University in Ottawa, Canada. He is the author of
Propaganda and the Ethics of Persuasion
(Broadview, 2002) and guest editor of the December 2010 issue of the Canadian edition of
Global Media Journal
, an issue devoted to Propaganda, Ethics and Media.
1
. G. K. Chesterton, “Distortions in the Press,”
Illustrated London News
, November 6, 1909.
2
. For a fuller account of the problems of definition and numerous suggested definitions see Randal Marlin,
Propaganda and the Ethics of Persuasion
(Peterborough, Ontario: Broadview Press, 2002). The same text discusses Ellul’s ideas in greater detail.
3
. The reader may question the authenticity of this document, readily available through a Google search. An inquiry directed at the curator of the National Security Archives at George Washington University (
[email protected]
) produced the following email response Thursday, July 8, 2010: “The documents we have posted on our website concerning ‘Operation Northwoods’ are genuine declassified US Government documents. National Security Archive Senior Analyst Peter Kornbluh is our expert on Cuba and he is the scholar responsible for our postings on Operation Northwoods.… Thank you for your interest in the work of the National Security Archive. Mary Curry, PhD, Public Service Coordinator and Research Associate.”
4
. For citations relating to most of the historical claims made in this article, see Marlin,
Propaganda and the Ethics of Persuasion
.
5
. Ellul’s ideas on this are found in Jacques Ellul, “The Characteristics of Propaganda,” chapter 1 in
Propaganda: The Formation of Men’s Attitudes
(New York: Vintage Books, 1973).
6
. This account is derived partly from an “Open Letter to the Duke of Devonshire,” sent to the
Times
of London January 7, 1900, by Charles Boissevain, editor of the influential Dutch newspaper, the
Algemeen Handelsblad
. The letter, widely circulated in Britain by Labour Leader Keir Hardie, was published in a book of Boissevain’s newspaper writings titled
Van Dag tot Dag
(Amsterdam: Jacob van Campen, 1925). It gives as references J. A. Hobson’s articles in then-current issues of the
Speaker;
Other material in this account is derived from Phillip Knightley,
The First Casualty
(London: André Deutsch, 1975).
7
. On German World War I propaganda generally, see David Welch,
Germany, Propaganda and Total War, 1914–1918
(New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2000). The specific reference to newsreel film is on page 49ff.
8
. Sources supporting this account are found in
Propaganda and the Ethics of Persuasion
, but new material has been added and can be found in Joachim Neander and Randal Marlin, “Media and Propaganda: The Northcliffe Press and the Corpse Factory Story of World War I,”
Global Media Journal
, Canadian ed., 3, no. 2 (2010): 67–82,
http://www.gmj.uottawa.ca/1002/v3i2_neander%20and%20marlin_e.html
.
A Theoretical Approach to Mass Psychological Manipulation Jacques Ellul’s Analysis of Modern Propaganda
by Jacob Van Vleet
Propaganda cannot be satisfied with partial successes, for it does not tolerate discussion; by its very nature it excludes contradiction and discussion
.
—
JACQUES ELLUL
1
French sociologist Jacques Ellul (1912–1994) authored more than fifty books and hundreds of scholarly essays, and was professor of the History and Sociology of Institutions at the University of Bordeaux. His work influenced a number of prominent intellectuals including Paul Ricoeur, Marshall McLuhan, Thomas Merton, and Paul Virilio. In 1962 Ellul published
Propaganda: The Formation of Men’s Attitudes
.
2
In it, he described and detailed various characteristics, methods, and types of propaganda in primarily contemporary Western societies. Ellul hoped to inform and educate the public of the true nature of modern propaganda and to awaken them to its disastrous social, psychological, and spiritual costs. He concluded that propaganda is inextricably linked to technological development, consumerism, and the rise of global capitalism.
In order to challenge propaganda, Ellul argued that we must first recognize its many forms and its entangled relationship to other systems of power, be they political, educational, or religious institutions. Ultimately, Ellul wanted to change these systems, which enable propaganda to exist and thrive. He was a true believer in freedom in all
forms—freedom of speech, religion, politics, and more. In fact, Ellul argued that freedom was precisely what propaganda was destroying. This quest for authentic individual and collective freedom was the reason for his work.
3
By elucidating Ellul’s central theoretical ideas, this essay will give the reader a deeper knowledge of the foundations of modern propaganda, and will provide the analytical tools needed to confront and critique today’s mass psychological manipulation.
Ellul defined propaganda as “… a set of methods employed by an organized group that wants to bring about the active or passive participation in its actions of a mass of individuals, psychologically unified through psychological manipulations and incorporated into an organization.”
4
Expanding this definition, Ellul maintained that, in its broadest sense, propaganda often involves one or more of the four following methods.
First, there is
psychological action
, a method through which the propagandist seeks to manipulate and modify public opinion using psychological means.
5
Appeals to fear, pity, guilt, sexual desire, and the like are employed in order to unconsciously sway the audience. This technique is clearly seen in advertisements that use scantily clad men and women in provocative sexual positions to sell various commodities. One can also observe this approach in political and military campaigns that rely primarily on fear tactics. The influential propagandist Edward Bernays recognized the effectiveness of this type of methodology and recommended it to the corporations and politicians he advised.
6
Psychological action appeals to people’s unconscious with very effective results.
Secondly, propaganda can involve what Ellul called the method of
psychological warfare
.
7
This occurs when the propagandist tries to “break down” the public’s self-confidence in their decision-making abilities. In other words, the propagandist conveys the message that he/she/it knows better than the individual and the public. Often part of a select group of people working for a corporation or institution, the propagandist wants people to trust the corporation’s or institution’s
message rather than listening to their own intuitions or opinions. This is often done by appealing to “experts” (or “technicians” as Ellul referred to them) and by manipulating or fabricating statistical data. This psychological warfare ends up creating a society deeply dependent upon the corporate media and other social institutions. Furthermore, most people cease to think critically and analytically about the messages they are receiving; they simply allow the propagandist to spoon-feed them the “truth.”
An example of the consequences of this technique is found in the fact that millions rely solely on mainstream media for their news. Many of these people have no idea that the “experts” who frame, present, and analyze the current news are often ideologically driven, have little in-depth knowledge, or simply lack the basic qualifications to intelligently comment on the topic at hand.
Thirdly, according to Ellul, propaganda often involves what he called
re-education
or
brainwashing
. This occurs when sources of public information are limited or edited in order to further a dominant ideology. Two recent examples illustrate this method. First, in March 2010, the Texas Board of Education voted to alter textbooks used in public institutions. These changes included challenging the Darwinian theory of evolution, emphasizing capitalism over other forms of economic systems, and leaving out discussion of the secular influences upon the Founding Fathers.
8
This is an irrefutable example of an ideologically motivated “re-education.”
A second example is the British Petroleum (BP) purchase of key search words from Google and Yahoo search engines after the Gulf oil disaster that BP had caused.
9
By drastically limiting public information, thus revealing only select answers and impressions about the oil spill, BP demonstrated attempts at what Ellul called the “brainwashing” of modern society.
Finally, in its broadest sense, propaganda often utilizes
public relations
. Institutions and corporations are always concerned with their relationship to the public and with the public’s perception of them. Thus, these entities frequently rely on a group of public relations experts to sell their products or services. According to Ellul, the sphere of public relations always involves a distortion of truth and a misrepresentation of the institutions in order that they might appear more
palatable to the masses. Furthermore, public relations technicians often use a myriad of manipulative and deceptive means to sway the public.
The key to understanding these four types of propaganda is to recognize that each of them is a
method
.
10
The first two employ psychological techniques and the last two employ the limiting and/or manipulation of information. All four, according to Ellul, are based on the propagandist’s knowledge of basic psychological and sociological principles. He states:
… the propagandist builds his techniques on the basis of his knowledge of man, his tendencies, his desires, his needs, his psychic mechanisms, his conditioning—and as much on social psychology as on depth psychology. He shapes his procedures on the basis of our knowledge of groups and their laws of formation and dissolution, of mass influences, and of environmental limitations. Without the scientific research of modern psychology and sociology there would be no propaganda …
11
Public relations experts, advertisers, and marketers use these principles to achieve a calculated outcome. Propaganda, therefore, has become a highly specialized technique that is generally not discussed in the public realm. Furthermore, even though it is all around us, propaganda often remains opaque. This is because many propagandists are skilled in camouflaging their work with a myriad of effective techniques, including those previously discussed.
An important aspect of this discussion is that modern propaganda is not simply a trick, a gimmick, or a dissemination of lies. To assume this is to be in a dangerous position. For example, many believe that they are quite capable of discerning truth from falsehood, and are thus able to recognize propaganda and readily dismiss it. However, in reality, propagandists often use a combination of true and false statements in their appeals. They also commonly rely on a few truthful propositions in their petitions, while omitting other relevant and factual information. This creates an illusion of objectivity when in fact only one side of the issue at hand is being presented. In its portrayal
of partially true—or true but partially distorted—information, propaganda proves to be more complicated than sheer lies that are easily detectable. Indeed, propaganda involves incredibly complex and multifaceted methods. It is created by experts who specialize in psychological, sociological, and cultural knowledge. The average person is usually unaware of the propagandist’s involved techniques and methodology, making propaganda all the more diabolical.
According to Ellul, these methods—psychological action, psychological warfare, re-education/brainwashing, and public relations—are employed by two primary overarching categories of propaganda:
political
and
social
.
12
Political propaganda is primarily concerned with three goals: convincing the public to place their trust in politicians, manipulating the public into believing that politicians have the interest of the people at heart, and making military acts acceptable to the public.
13
These are essential to maintaining political hierarchies of control and order.