Knowledge in the Time of Cholera (48 page)

6
. Jamie Ferran's vaccine (discussed in
chapter 5
) was beset with problems and the international medical community was reluctant to embrace his conclusions (Bornside 1982). In 1892, Waldemar Haffkine developed an anticholera vaccine that was looked upon quite favorably by the international medical community. However, after a number of missteps and controversies, enthusiasm waned and the vaccine never caught on (Löwy 1992).

7
. Vaccination actually preceded laboratory science as the smallpox vaccine was developed by Edward Jenner in 1796. Even earlier, during the colonial period in the United States, Cotton Mather suggested that inhabitants of the Massachusetts Bay Colony could get inoculated against small pox (Silverman 1984).

8
. Although Joseph Lister published his famous paper “On the Antiseptic Principle of the Practice of Surgery” in 1867, the mechanisms behind these techniques were later made explicit by Louis Pasteur. As the germ theory gained widespread acceptance, such techniques were refined, leading to the rise of sterile surgery.

9
. The tension between democracy and science identified here diverges from Robert Merton's (1973) understanding of the complementary and reinforcing relationship between democracy and science. Merton's claims emerge from a comparison between Western democracies and the restrictive practices of authoritarian regimes. This comparative lens leads Merton to stress the ways in which democratic social orders promote the scientific norms of value neutrality (or disinterestedness) and unrestricted rational and open discussions (or universalism). The key assumption underlying his claim is that science is open to all. While this may be formally true, I am stressing the barriers that are erected to prevent widespread participation, which retard democratic participation not just in the production of scientific knowledge but also in policy issues in which science is involved. As always Merton's actual analysis is more nuanced than the caricature of it, and he was cautious in not overstating the positive relationship between science and democratic social orders (Sica 2010). Still, we must recognize the ways in which science clashes with democratic values.

10
. However, one needs to be careful, as the recent adoption of Intelligent Design (ID) by U.S. conservatives may suggest an epistemic convergence; to be acceptable creationism has been recast in terms of science. The degree to which ID represents a genuine effort at science or a cynical Trojan horse is an empirical question that will determine whether thinking of this issue as an epistemic contest is useful.

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