Malcolm X (94 page)
Authors: Manning Marable
126
to hold a job as a night cook at the temple’s restaurant.
FBI—Gravitt, Memo, New York Office, December 12, 1956.
to hold a job as a night cook at the temple’s restaurant.
FBI—Gravitt, Memo, New York Office, December 12, 1956.
126
had been fully restored to his rank.
FBI—Gravitt, Memo, New York Office, October 23, 1956.
had been fully restored to his rank.
FBI—Gravitt, Memo, New York Office, October 23, 1956.
126
whose members were working-class blacks.
Collins,
Seventh Child
, p. 104.
whose members were working-class blacks.
Collins,
Seventh Child
, p. 104.
127
frequent examples of police brutality toward blacks.
Tillman Durdin, “Barriers for Negro Here Still High Despite Gains,”
New York Times
, April 23, 1956.
frequent examples of police brutality toward blacks.
Tillman Durdin, “Barriers for Negro Here Still High Despite Gains,”
New York Times
, April 23, 1956.
127
the NOI's restaurant several blocks away with the news.
James Hicks, “Riot Threat as Cops Beat Muslim: ‘God’s Angry Men’ Tangle with Police,”
Amsterdam News
, May 4, 1957; and Evelyn Cunningham, “Moslems, Cops Battle in Harlem,”
Pittsburgh Courier
, May 4, 1957.
the NOI's restaurant several blocks away with the news.
James Hicks, “Riot Threat as Cops Beat Muslim: ‘God’s Angry Men’ Tangle with Police,”
Amsterdam News
, May 4, 1957; and Evelyn Cunningham, “Moslems, Cops Battle in Harlem,”
Pittsburgh Courier
, May 4, 1957.
128
Hinton was transported in an ambulance to Harlem Hospital.
Hicks, “Riot Threat as Cops Beat Muslim.”
Hinton was transported in an ambulance to Harlem Hospital.
Hicks, “Riot Threat as Cops Beat Muslim.”
128
down the busiest thoroughfare in Harlem.
Malcolm X and Haley,
Autobiography
, pp. 238-39.
down the busiest thoroughfare in Harlem.
Malcolm X and Haley,
Autobiography
, pp. 238-39.
128
A confrontation appeared inevitable.
Hicks, “Riot Threat as Cops Beat Muslim”; and DeCaro,
On the Side of My People
, pp. 112-13.
A confrontation appeared inevitable.
Hicks, “Riot Threat as Cops Beat Muslim”; and DeCaro,
On the Side of My People
, pp. 112-13.
128
“No one man should have that much power.”
Hicks, “Riot Threat as Cops Beat Muslim.”
“No one man should have that much power.”
Hicks, “Riot Threat as Cops Beat Muslim.”
129
“as orderly as a battalion of Marines.”
Ibid.; and “400 March to Score Police in Harlem,”
New York Times
, April 29, 1957.
“as orderly as a battalion of Marines.”
Ibid.; and “400 March to Score Police in Harlem,”
New York Times
, April 29, 1957.
129
judgment that a New York jury had ever awarded.
Malcolm X and Haley,
Autobiography
, p. 239; and “Moslem Announces $Million NY Suit,”
Pittsburgh Courier
, November 9, 1957. A large silver plate was inserted in Hinton’s skull to replace the bone that the police beating had shattered. Hinton was permanently disabled.
judgment that a New York jury had ever awarded.
Malcolm X and Haley,
Autobiography
, p. 239; and “Moslem Announces $Million NY Suit,”
Pittsburgh Courier
, November 9, 1957. A large silver plate was inserted in Hinton’s skull to replace the bone that the police beating had shattered. Hinton was permanently disabled.
129
or to be “on the side of my people.”
DeCaro,
On the Side of My People
, p. 113.
or to be “on the side of my people.”
DeCaro,
On the Side of My People
, p. 113.
Has
to Be Married”
130
“with plagues of cancer, polio, [and] heart disease.”
Malcolm X, “God’s Angry Men,”
Amsterdam News
, June 1, 1957.
“with plagues of cancer, polio, [and] heart disease.”
Malcolm X, “God’s Angry Men,”
Amsterdam News
, June 1, 1957.
130
he rarely failed to deliver a command performance.
See “Mr. X Tells What Islan [
sic
] Means,”
Amsterdam News
, April 20, 1957; and Malcolm X, “God’s Angry Men,”
Amsterdam News
, April 27, 1957.
he rarely failed to deliver a command performance.
See “Mr. X Tells What Islan [
sic
] Means,”
Amsterdam News
, April 20, 1957; and Malcolm X, “God’s Angry Men,”
Amsterdam News
, April 27, 1957.
131
“beginning to realize that there is strength in numbers.”
MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, April 30, 1958.
“beginning to realize that there is strength in numbers.”
MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, April 30, 1958.
131
and Ahmad Zaki el-Barail, the Egyptian attaché.
“2,000 at Moslem Feast in Harlem,”
Amsterdam News
, July 20, 1957.
and Ahmad Zaki el-Barail, the Egyptian attaché.
“2,000 at Moslem Feast in Harlem,”
Amsterdam News
, July 20, 1957.
131
an impressive lineup of speakers was present.
“New Yorkers to Honor Marcus Garvey,”
Chicago Defender
, August 2, 1957.
an impressive lineup of speakers was present.
“New Yorkers to Honor Marcus Garvey,”
Chicago Defender
, August 2, 1957.
131
“being nothing but ‘puppets for the white man.’ ”
“Moslem Speaker Electrifies Garvey Crowd,”
Amsterdam News
, August 19, 1957.
“being nothing but ‘puppets for the white man.’ ”
“Moslem Speaker Electrifies Garvey Crowd,”
Amsterdam News
, August 19, 1957.
132
“information with photo showing full description.”
Thomas A. Nielson, Chief Inspector, to Paul R. Taylor, Police Chief, Lansing, Michigan; Nielson to John W. Whearty, Chief of Police, Milton, Massachusetts; Nielson to Edward S. Piggins, Police Commissioner, Detroit, Michigan; Nielson to Michigan Parole Commission, Inkster, Michigan; Nielson to Walter Carroll, Chief of Police, Dedham, Massachusetts; Nielson to Superintendent of State Prison, Charlesten [
sic
], Massachusetts; and Nielson to Superintendent, Massachusetts State Reformatory, Concord Massachusetts, all May 15, 1957 in Malcolm X Bureau of Special Services (BOSS) file, New York Police Department.
“information with photo showing full description.”
Thomas A. Nielson, Chief Inspector, to Paul R. Taylor, Police Chief, Lansing, Michigan; Nielson to John W. Whearty, Chief of Police, Milton, Massachusetts; Nielson to Edward S. Piggins, Police Commissioner, Detroit, Michigan; Nielson to Michigan Parole Commission, Inkster, Michigan; Nielson to Walter Carroll, Chief of Police, Dedham, Massachusetts; Nielson to Superintendent of State Prison, Charlesten [
sic
], Massachusetts; and Nielson to Superintendent, Massachusetts State Reformatory, Concord Massachusetts, all May 15, 1957 in Malcolm X Bureau of Special Services (BOSS) file, New York Police Department.
132
“does speak out, he is always too late.”
“Malcolm X Will Lecture Four Weeks at Detroit Spot,”
Pittsburgh Courier
, August 17, 1957.
“does speak out, he is always too late.”
“Malcolm X Will Lecture Four Weeks at Detroit Spot,”
Pittsburgh Courier
, August 17, 1957.
133
begin to take matters into his own hands.
“‘Negroes, No Compromise on Civil Rights’ Malcolm X,
ʺ Los Angeles Herald Dispatch
, August 22, 1957.
begin to take matters into his own hands.
“‘Negroes, No Compromise on Civil Rights’ Malcolm X,
ʺ Los Angeles Herald Dispatch
, August 22, 1957.
133
They were hardly “revolutionaries.”
W. Haywood Burns, “The Black Muslims in America: A Reinterpretation,”
Race
, vol. 5, no. 1 (July 1963), pp. 29-31.
They were hardly “revolutionaries.”
W. Haywood Burns, “The Black Muslims in America: A Reinterpretation,”
Race
, vol. 5, no. 1 (July 1963), pp. 29-31.
134
would become head minister of Temple No. 1.
MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, April 30, 1958.
would become head minister of Temple No. 1.
MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, April 30, 1958.
134
in that city were “packed to capacity.”
“Malcolm X Making Hit in Detroit,”
Amsterdam News
, September 7, 1957.
in that city were “packed to capacity.”
“Malcolm X Making Hit in Detroit,”
Amsterdam News
, September 7, 1957.
134
produced major gains for the Nation.
“Malcolm X Returns; Detroit Moslems Grow,”
Amsterdam News
, October 26, 1957.
produced major gains for the Nation.
“Malcolm X Returns; Detroit Moslems Grow,”
Amsterdam News
, October 26, 1957.
134
advised that he take time off, but he adamantly refused.
DeCaro,
On the Side of My People
, p. 117; and “Malcolm Shabazz Speaker at DC Brotherhood Feast,”
Amsterdam News
, November 30, 1959.
advised that he take time off, but he adamantly refused.
DeCaro,
On the Side of My People
, p. 117; and “Malcolm Shabazz Speaker at DC Brotherhood Feast,”
Amsterdam News
, November 30, 1959.
134
for his protégé Louis X, the Boston temple minister.
“Malcolm X in Boston,”
Amsterdam News
, November 9, 1957; and DeCaro,
On the Side of My People
, p. 117.
for his protégé Louis X, the Boston temple minister.
“Malcolm X in Boston,”
Amsterdam News
, November 9, 1957; and DeCaro,
On the Side of My People
, p. 117.
134
he argued, “but a Jew can.”
MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, June 22, 1961.
he argued, “but a Jew can.”
MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, June 22, 1961.
135
“menace to society, but to world peace.”
Telegram, Malcolm X to Stephen Kennedy, NYPD Commissioner, November 2, 1957, BOSS.
“menace to society, but to world peace.”
Telegram, Malcolm X to Stephen Kennedy, NYPD Commissioner, November 2, 1957, BOSS.
135
name and address of his private physician.
Memorandum, Walter Upshur to the BOSS Commanding Officer, November 7, 1957, ibid.
name and address of his private physician.
Memorandum, Walter Upshur to the BOSS Commanding Officer, November 7, 1957, ibid.
135
in Detroit, and soon after departed.
MX FBI, Correlation Summary, New York Office, August 22, 1961, p. 20.
in Detroit, and soon after departed.
MX FBI, Correlation Summary, New York Office, August 22, 1961, p. 20.
135
“uniting Negroes where it is heard.”
“Malcolm X Speaks in Detroit Again,”
Amsterdam News
, December 14, 1957.
“uniting Negroes where it is heard.”
“Malcolm X Speaks in Detroit Again,”
Amsterdam News
, December 14, 1957.
135
he was using this name widely by 1957.
DeCaro,
On the Side of My People
, p. 117.
he was using this name widely by 1957.
DeCaro,
On the Side of My People
, p. 117.
136
“hard-working, Christian-believing black woman.”
Malcolm X and Haley,
Autobiography
, p. 274.
“hard-working, Christian-believing black woman.”
Malcolm X and Haley,
Autobiography
, p. 274.
136
Atlanta temple had doubled its membership.
DeCaro,
On the Side of My People
, p. 118.
Atlanta temple had doubled its membership.
DeCaro,
On the Side of My People
, p. 118.
136
secure their release with only minor fines.
Ibid., p. 120; and “Moslem Fight R.R. Station Bias, Jailed,”
Pittsburgh Courier
, March 7, 1957. The county solicitor hearing the case levied fines of $226 on each of the two Muslim men. Considering that the Muslims had severely beaten the white police officer who initially tried to arrest them, it was a remarkably lenient fine.
secure their release with only minor fines.
Ibid., p. 120; and “Moslem Fight R.R. Station Bias, Jailed,”
Pittsburgh Courier
, March 7, 1957. The county solicitor hearing the case levied fines of $226 on each of the two Muslim men. Considering that the Muslims had severely beaten the white police officer who initially tried to arrest them, it was a remarkably lenient fine.
137
“creation of the Northern white man.”
Malcolm X and Haley,
Autobiography
, pp. 276-77.
“creation of the Northern white man.”
Malcolm X and Haley,
Autobiography
, pp. 276-77.
137
Columbia University’s East Asian Institute.
James 67X Warden interview, July 24, 2007.
Columbia University’s East Asian Institute.
James 67X Warden interview, July 24, 2007.
138
“being arrested, I will never come back.”
James 67X Warden interview, June 18, 2003.
“being arrested, I will never come back.”
James 67X Warden interview, June 18, 2003.
138
“This was not the case.”
Ibid.
“This was not the case.”
Ibid.
139
at the Bronx’s Montefiore Hospital.
Russell J. Rickford,
Betty Shabazz: A Life Before and After Malcolm X
(Naperville, IL: Sourcebooks, 2003), pp. 2-11, 23, 27, 31.
at the Bronx’s Montefiore Hospital.
Russell J. Rickford,
Betty Shabazz: A Life Before and After Malcolm X
(Naperville, IL: Sourcebooks, 2003), pp. 2-11, 23, 27, 31.
139
“This man is totally malnourished!” she thought.
Ibid., p. 39.
“This man is totally malnourished!” she thought.
Ibid., p. 39.
139
“nor drinks and is of high moral character.”
MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, May 19, 1959, p. 20.
“nor drinks and is of high moral character.”
MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, May 19, 1959, p. 20.
140
Sundays reserved for the week’s main religious service.
Malcolm X and Haley,
Autobiography
, pp. 231-32.
Sundays reserved for the week’s main religious service.
Malcolm X and Haley,
Autobiography
, pp. 231-32.
141
“that if she complains she is justified.”
Malcolm X to Elijah Muhammad, March 25, 1959. Copy in possession of author.
“that if she complains she is justified.”
Malcolm X to Elijah Muhammad, March 25, 1959. Copy in possession of author.
141
“carry a gun, or telling a hen not to cackle.”
Malcolm X and Haley,
Autobiography
, pp. 231-32.
“carry a gun, or telling a hen not to cackle.”
Malcolm X and Haley,
Autobiography
, pp. 231-32.
142
“control her if he expects to get her respect.”
Ibid.
“control her if he expects to get her respect.”
Ibid.
142
chaos, or
fitna
, if not tightly controlled.
Robert Dannin observes that “most Muslim commentators regard sexuality as a purely carnal activity that will wreak chaos and confusion in the social body if it is not systematically controlled.” See Dannin,
Black Pilgrimage to Islam
, p. 217.
chaos, or
fitna
, if not tightly controlled.
Robert Dannin observes that “most Muslim commentators regard sexuality as a purely carnal activity that will wreak chaos and confusion in the social body if it is not systematically controlled.” See Dannin,
Black Pilgrimage to Islam
, p. 217.
142
commitment toward an Islamic lifestyle.
Denny,
An Introduction to Islam
, pp. 300-301.
commitment toward an Islamic lifestyle.
Denny,
An Introduction to Islam
, pp. 300-301.
142
reveal what they hide of their adornment.
Holy Qur' an, surah XXIV, verse 31.
reveal what they hide of their adornment.
Holy Qur' an, surah XXIV, verse 31.
143
“wants a sterile wom[a]n?” he asked rhetorically.
See Muhammad,
Message to the Blackman in America
, especially chapter 35.
“wants a sterile wom[a]n?” he asked rhetorically.
See Muhammad,
Message to the Blackman in America
, especially chapter 35.
143
“[and] that there will be economic stability.”
Farah Jasmine Griffin interview, August 6, 2001.
“[and] that there will be economic stability.”
Farah Jasmine Griffin interview, August 6, 2001.
143
as well as other community concerns.
See Cynthia S'thembile West, “Revisiting Female Activism in the 1960s: The Newark Branch Nation of Islam,”
Black Scholar
, vol. 26, nos. 3-4 (Fall 1996/Winter 1997), pp. 41-48.
as well as other community concerns.
See Cynthia S'thembile West, “Revisiting Female Activism in the 1960s: The Newark Branch Nation of Islam,”
Black Scholar
, vol. 26, nos. 3-4 (Fall 1996/Winter 1997), pp. 41-48.
144
romantically attracted to her she might reject him.
Malcolm X and Haley
Autobiography
, pp. 231-34.
romantically attracted to her she might reject him.
Malcolm X and Haley
Autobiography
, pp. 231-34.
144
that he thought Betty X was “a fine sister.”
Ibid., p. 234.
that he thought Betty X was “a fine sister.”
Ibid., p. 234.
145
chief instigator of his lieutenant’s marriage.
Rickford,
Betty Shabazz
, pp. 62-65, 66.
chief instigator of his lieutenant’s marriage.
Rickford,
Betty Shabazz
, pp. 62-65, 66.
145
deeply in love with Evelyn Williams.
Louis Farrakhan interview, December 27, 2007.
deeply in love with Evelyn Williams.
Louis Farrakhan interview, December 27, 2007.
145
pursued her “persistently and correctly.”
Rickford,
Betty Shabazz
, pp. 62-66.
pursued her “persistently and correctly.”
Rickford,
Betty Shabazz
, pp. 62-66.
145
packed her suitcase and made plans to fly to Detroit.
Ibid., pp. 66-70; and Malcolm X and Haley,
Autobiography
, pp. 234-35.
packed her suitcase and made plans to fly to Detroit.
Ibid., pp. 66-70; and Malcolm X and Haley,
Autobiography
, pp. 234-35.
145
but she was determined to have her way.
Rickford,
Betty Shabazz
, pp. 71-73.
but she was determined to have her way.
Rickford,
Betty Shabazz
, pp. 71-73.
145
Malloys “were very friendly, and happily surprised.”
Malcolm X and Haley,
Autobiography
, p. 235.
Malloys “were very friendly, and happily surprised.”
Malcolm X and Haley,
Autobiography
, p. 235.
146
“kissing and hugging . . . like Cinderella.”
Ibid., pp. 235-36.
“kissing and hugging . . . like Cinderella.”
Ibid., pp. 235-36.
146
“all the time. Maybe she did get me!”
Ibid., p. 236.
“all the time. Maybe she did get me!”
Ibid., p. 236.
146
ran from the building screaming.
Evanzz,
The Messenger
, p. 261.
ran from the building screaming.
Evanzz,
The Messenger
, p. 261.
147
“who has been brought up under the devil can accept this.”
Rickford,
Betty Shabazz
, p. 103; and James 67X Warden interview, July 24, 2007.
“who has been brought up under the devil can accept this.”
Rickford,
Betty Shabazz
, p. 103; and James 67X Warden interview, July 24, 2007.
147
“the greatest thing in my life.”
Rickford,
Betty Shabazz
, p. 78.
“the greatest thing in my life.”
Rickford,
Betty Shabazz
, p. 78.
148
only name he had come up with was a boy’s.
Ibid., p. 109.
only name he had come up with was a boy’s.
Ibid., p. 109.
148
he virtually disappeared following the birth.
Malcolm X and Haley,
Autobiography
, p. 232; and MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, May 19, 1959, pp. 31-32.
he virtually disappeared following the birth.
Malcolm X and Haley,
Autobiography
, p. 232; and MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, May 19, 1959, pp. 31-32.
148
to speak at an NOI gathering.
MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, May 19, 1958, p. 6.
to speak at an NOI gathering.
MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, May 19, 1958, p. 6.
148
before moving along to Newark, New Jersey.
Ibid., pp. 18, 22.
before moving along to Newark, New Jersey.
Ibid., pp. 18, 22.
148
he allowed her to continue working to clear these debts.
Malcolm X to Elijah Muhammad, March 25, 1959.
he allowed her to continue working to clear these debts.
Malcolm X to Elijah Muhammad, March 25, 1959.
149
at meetings held at the Normandie Hall in Los Angeles.
MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, November 19, 1958, pp. 6-10; “Build Heaven on Earth,”
Los Angeles Herald Dispatch
, March 27, 1958.
at meetings held at the Normandie Hall in Los Angeles.
MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, November 19, 1958, pp. 6-10; “Build Heaven on Earth,”
Los Angeles Herald Dispatch
, March 27, 1958.
149
gala reception honoring the Republic of Pakistan.
“Moslems Celebrate Third Pakistan Republic Day in L.A.,
ʺ Los Angeles Herald Dispatch
, March 27, 1957.
gala reception honoring the Republic of Pakistan.
“Moslems Celebrate Third Pakistan Republic Day in L.A.,
ʺ Los Angeles Herald Dispatch
, March 27, 1957.
149
media “since it is controlled by the Zionists.”
“Sees Aggressive Zionism as Threat to World Peace,”
Los Angeles Herald Dispatch
, April 10, 1958; and “Arab Director, Malcolm X Hit U.S. Press, Radio, TV,
ʺ Amsterdam News
, May 3, 1958. At the April 7, 1958, press conference, Mendi denied that there was any conflict between “Arabs and Jews”; the only real difficulty existed between Arabs and “aggressive Zionists.”
media “since it is controlled by the Zionists.”
“Sees Aggressive Zionism as Threat to World Peace,”
Los Angeles Herald Dispatch
, April 10, 1958; and “Arab Director, Malcolm X Hit U.S. Press, Radio, TV,
ʺ Amsterdam News
, May 3, 1958. At the April 7, 1958, press conference, Mendi denied that there was any conflict between “Arabs and Jews”; the only real difficulty existed between Arabs and “aggressive Zionists.”
149
African-American churches and the poverty of their worshippers.
“Christians Walk Out on Moslems,”
Amsterdam News
, April 26, 1958.
African-American churches and the poverty of their worshippers.
“Christians Walk Out on Moslems,”
Amsterdam News
, April 26, 1958.
149
find among those standing his sister Ella.
Malcolm X and Haley,
Autobiography
, pp. 237-38.
find among those standing his sister Ella.
Malcolm X and Haley,
Autobiography
, pp. 237-38.
149
“she married and of being pregnant, and
she cursed me too.
ʺ
Malcolm X to Elijah Muhammad, March 25, 1959.
“she married and of being pregnant, and
she cursed me too.
ʺ
Malcolm X to Elijah Muhammad, March 25, 1959.
150
“you and her were no longer equals.”
Rickford,
Betty Shabazz
, p. 144.
“you and her were no longer equals.”
Rickford,
Betty Shabazz
, p. 144.
150
“(not able to engage in the act long enough to satisfy her).”
Malcolm X to Elijah Muhammad, March 25, 1959.
“(not able to engage in the act long enough to satisfy her).”
Malcolm X to Elijah Muhammad, March 25, 1959.
150
on the ground floor of the Littles' duplex.
The 1958 police raid on Malcolm X's East Elmhurst, Queens, home is recounted in detail in “Three Moslems Seized as Police Fighters: Home of 'X' Group's Leader Site of Battle,”
Amsterdam News
, May 24, 1958; “Moslems Await 'D-Day' in N.Y. Court,”
Pittsburgh Courier
, May 24, 1958; and “Moslems Freed, Cry for Arrest of Cops,”
Pittsburgh Courier
, March 28, 1959.
on the ground floor of the Littles' duplex.
The 1958 police raid on Malcolm X's East Elmhurst, Queens, home is recounted in detail in “Three Moslems Seized as Police Fighters: Home of 'X' Group's Leader Site of Battle,”
Amsterdam News
, May 24, 1958; “Moslems Await 'D-Day' in N.Y. Court,”
Pittsburgh Courier
, May 24, 1958; and “Moslems Freed, Cry for Arrest of Cops,”
Pittsburgh Courier
, March 28, 1959.
151 (
either in the ground-floor living quarters or in the basement.)
Memorandum, Detective William K. DeFossett to BOSS Commanding Officer, May 27, 1958, BOSS.
either in the ground-floor living quarters or in the basement.)
Memorandum, Detective William K. DeFossett to BOSS Commanding Officer, May 27, 1958, BOSS.
151
all were eventually released on bail.
“Three Moslems Seized as Police Fighters,”
Amsterdam News
; “Moslems Await 'D-Day' in N.Y. Court,”
Pittsburgh Courier
; and “Moslems Freed, Cry for Arrest of Cops,”
Pittsburgh Courier
, March 28, 1959.
all were eventually released on bail.
“Three Moslems Seized as Police Fighters,”
Amsterdam News
; “Moslems Await 'D-Day' in N.Y. Court,”
Pittsburgh Courier
; and “Moslems Freed, Cry for Arrest of Cops,”
Pittsburgh Courier
, March 28, 1959.
152
one press account, utterly amazed the police.
“Moslems Await ‘D-Day’ in N.Y. Court,”
Pittsburgh Courier
.
one press account, utterly amazed the police.
“Moslems Await ‘D-Day’ in N.Y. Court,”
Pittsburgh Courier
.
152
1958 Saviour’s Day festivities in Chicago.
FBI—Betty Sanders (also known as Betty Shabazz and Betty X) file, Summary Report, New York Office, June 30, 1958.
1958 Saviour’s Day festivities in Chicago.
FBI—Betty Sanders (also known as Betty Shabazz and Betty X) file, Summary Report, New York Office, June 30, 1958.
152
and another for $742.42 to Sacks Quality Stores, Inc.
FBI—Sanders, Summary Report, New York Office, December 9, 1964.
and another for $742.42 to Sacks Quality Stores, Inc.
FBI—Sanders, Summary Report, New York Office, December 9, 1964.
152
so they can help their own people.
FBI—Sanders, Summary Report, New York Office, June 2, 1959. Betty Shabazz also gave a speech at the NOI meeting in Hartford, Connecticut, on September 13, 1959.
so they can help their own people.
FBI—Sanders, Summary Report, New York Office, June 2, 1959. Betty Shabazz also gave a speech at the NOI meeting in Hartford, Connecticut, on September 13, 1959.
153
speeches primarily based on the event.
MX FBI, Correlation Summary, New York Office, August 22, 1961, pp. 55-56.
speeches primarily based on the event.
MX FBI, Correlation Summary, New York Office, August 22, 1961, pp. 55-56.
153
“key points that forced the jury into a deadlock.”
“Moslems Freed, Cry for Arrest of Cops,”
Pittsburgh Courier
; and Report of Little-Molette-Simmons Trial, Memorandum, March 27, 1959, BOSS.
“key points that forced the jury into a deadlock.”
“Moslems Freed, Cry for Arrest of Cops,”
Pittsburgh Courier
; and Report of Little-Molette-Simmons Trial, Memorandum, March 27, 1959, BOSS.
154
a surveillance update every six months.
MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, July 2, 1958.
a surveillance update every six months.
MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, July 2, 1958.
154
Jim Crow segregation and Northern discrimination.
As Oliver Jones, Jr., has observed, the Nation of Islam drew upon the traditional demands of black nationalism, but it was not primarily concerned with constructing an agenda and political strategy to achieve these objectives. The Muslims’ “belief in a nation of their own never produced a political program for the establishment of such a national home,” Jones noted. “Indeed, the Muslims looked to Allah instead of Washington for the ultimate solution.” See Oliver Jones, Jr., “The Black Muslim Movement and the American Constitutional System,”
Journal of Black Studies
, vol. 13, no. 4 (June 1983), pp. 417-37.
Jim Crow segregation and Northern discrimination.
As Oliver Jones, Jr., has observed, the Nation of Islam drew upon the traditional demands of black nationalism, but it was not primarily concerned with constructing an agenda and political strategy to achieve these objectives. The Muslims’ “belief in a nation of their own never produced a political program for the establishment of such a national home,” Jones noted. “Indeed, the Muslims looked to Allah instead of Washington for the ultimate solution.” See Oliver Jones, Jr., “The Black Muslim Movement and the American Constitutional System,”
Journal of Black Studies
, vol. 13, no. 4 (June 1983), pp. 417-37.
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