Marcus Agrippa: Right-hand Man of Caesar Augustus (58 page)

The evidence from which it is possible to piece together the life and exploits of M. Agrippa is scattered across several types of source material. These include written accounts and inscriptions. From coins and sculptures we have a very good idea of how he looked.

1. Authors

Written sources from the ancient world pose particular problems for modern historians. The approach to writing history then was very different from today. In
Ancient History: Evidence and Models
(1985), Sir Moses Finley observed that modern scholars tend to treat ancient authors’ works with a reverence and lack of criticism that they do not accord material of other ages. It is particularly problematic for anyone studying the late Republic and principate of Augustus.

Pliny the Elder (
Nat. Hist
., 7.148–149) and Servius (
Ad Georg
. 2.162) indicate that Agrippa wrote a memoir – as did many famous Roman generals, such as Marius and Cornelius Sulla. Sadly it is completely lost. The other great loss is large portions of Livy’s history of Rome
From the Foundation of the City
. We know from the so-called
Periochae
– a summary by ancient librarians of what each volume contained – that the last forty or so books covered the events of the late Republic down to 9 BCE (ending with the death of Nero Claudius Drusus), but the full text of them has not survived.

A handful of primary sources – that is to say, written by contemporaries or eyewitnesses – have come down to us, notably by Augustus, Nikolaos of Damascus and the works of imperial ‘court poets’ Horace and Vergil. Other surviving accounts are Velleius Paterculus’ brief history of the Roman Empire and Strabo’s sprawling geographical treatise.

All the other extant accounts which mention Agrippa were written decades or even centuries later. The most complete account of his early life and achievements can be pieced together from Appian’s
Roman History
about Agrippa’s life before Actium; and the derivative history of Cassius Dio, who drew on earlier accounts, but the information he preserves gives a near complete chronology of Agrippa’s life after Actium.

In studying these accounts for evidence of the life and exploits of our subject, we have to be mindful of the difficulties posed by the literature, and understand the motives of their authors and the times in which they wrote, and compare their claims against what is known from archaeological, epigraphical and numismatic sources. Furthermore, while Agrippa was a battle-hardened war fighter, few of the ancient writers had personal military experience and, as a consequence, lacked the
insights a soldier learned from actual combat, which means that their accounts of expeditions, campaigns and battles are often flawed or difficult to interpret.

Appian (Appianos, c. 95–c. 165 CE)
– An educated man of equestrian rank, Appian served as an official in the administration of his native Alexandria before moving to Rome around 120 CE to practice law and plead cases. In 147 CE he returned to Egypt to take up the office of
procurator
on the recommendation of M. Cornelius Fronto (tutor of the Emperor M. Aurelius). He wrote
Ῥωμαϊκά
, a history of Rome in Greek in twenty-four books, of which sections only about half survive. Of these, five (books 13–17) have come to be known collectively as the
Civil War
referred to by the Latin
Bellum Civile
and they offer us a robust account of the tumultuous events following the assassination of Iulius Caesar. Using a conflict-based approach to his subject, compared to other ancient world historians Appian offers greater topographical clarity and provides better insight into the strategic decisions made by commanders in combat. His sources may have included the accounts of Asinius Pollio and Messalla Corvinus who fought in the wars as well as Livy and Plutarch. Appian confirms that Agrippa ‘became a friend of Octavius, and some time later served as his deputy against Antonius at the Battle of Actium’ (
Bell. Civ
. 4.49). He informs us that Agrippa interceded to have a deputy of Brutus removed from the proscription list (4.49). He records Agrippa’s actions during the Perusine War, at Sutrium (5.31), Perusia (5.32) and Fulginiae (5.35). He mentions Agrippa’s victory in Aquitania (5.92). From Appian come the most detailed accounts of the War of Sex. Pompeius. He describes Agrippa’s preparations, such as equipping the ships with the
corvus
(5.106), the cleansing ceremony at
Portus Iulius
(5.96), and the battles at Mylae (5.105–5.109), Naulochus (5.116–121); the Illyrian War where Agrippa saw action at Metulus (
Illyrike
19–20) and his involvement during the entire Actian War (4.49; 5.31–33, 35, 50, 57, 58, 92, 96, 101, 102, 105–110, 112, 115–122).

Augustus (C. Octavius Thurinus, after 16 January 27 BCE C. Imperator Caesar Augustus
Divi filius
), 63 BCE–14 CE
– Grand-nephew of the Perpetual Dictator and heir to his potent name and vast fortune, Augustus established a form of autocracy within the framework of the traditional
Res Publica
. He wrote his autobiographical
Res Gestae
,
Things Done
, which, upon his death, was distributed and posted across the Roman Empire. In effect, it was his personal attempt to write the first draft of the story and achievements of his own life. In it he acknowledges the contributions of M. Agrippa by name as
censor
(
RG
8) in 28 BCE and as co-organizer of the
Ludi Saeculares
(22) in 17 BCE. Interesting is what he omits to say about his colleague and friend. He mentions his victory at Actium (25), and the revolts in Gaul, Illyricum and Cantabria (26, 29–30), but not the role Agrippa played in them; and he boasts that he distributed 400
sestertii
to each man (15) in 12 BCE, but not that it was in part paid out of proceeds from Agrippa’s estate.

Cassius Dio (L. or Cl. Dio Cassius Cocceianus), c. 155 or 163/164–after 229 CE
– Dio was a senator and consul who wrote one of the most complete histories of Roman civilization that has come down to us. Written in Greek in
eighty volumes, it took Dio twenty-two years to research and assemble his material for
Roman History
(
Ῥωμαϊκὴ Iστορία
). His sources may have included Appian, Livy and Tacitus. Agrippa appears frequently in Books 48 through 54 of
Roman History
. He notes the year of his death and describes the funeral at which Augustus spoke (54.28). He describes Agrippa the man and praises his virtues at length (54.29.1–3), records his actions during the Perusine War (48.14.1), assignment of the defence of Gaul (48.20.1), his staging the
Ludi Apollinares
and
Ludus Troiae
and adopting airs and graces on account of his privileged connection (48.20.2); his early military engagement with Sex. Pompeius (48.20.2), his successful capture of Sipontium (48.28.1), his task to build a fleet of ships (48.49.2–4); his victory in Aquitania, crossing over the Rhine River and award of a triumph, which he declined (48.49.3) and his first consulship (48 Index); his building the fleet (48.49.4–5) and equipping ships with the
harpax
(48.51.5, 49.3.4), constructing
Portus Iulius
(48.50.1–3), the award of the golden
corona navalis
(49.14.3), his campaign against the Delmatae (49.38.3); his self-financed repairs to the
Aqua Marcia
(49.42.2), repairing public buildings, streets and sewers (49.43.1), which included inspecting the
Cloaca Maxima
in person (49.43.1), distributing largess to the crowds at the games (49.43.4), expelling astrologers from Rome (49.43.5); his command of the Caesarian forces in the Actian War (50.9.2–3, 50.14.1), the capture of Methone (50.11.3), the capture of Leukas (50.13.5), the defeat of Sosius off the coast of Corcyra (50.14.1–2), his concerns before the Battle of Actium (50.31.2), the naval battle on 2 September 31 BCE (50.32.1–51.1.1), repatriating the legions to Italy (51.3.5), the honours accorded to him, including the blue ensign (51.21.3) and his award of Pompeius Magnus’ palatial house (53.27.5); his loyalty to Augustus (53.27.4), his second consulship (53 Index, 53.1.2), the gift of a tent to match Augustus’ own (53.1.2); his marriage to Claudia Marcella (53.1.2), appointment as
censor
(52.42.1), sponsorship of the Circensian Games (Dio 53.1.4–5); his programme of building in Rome (53.27.1), including the
Saepta Iulia
(53.23.1–2), the
Diribitorium
(55.8.4), the
Basilica Neptuni
(53.27.1, 56.24) with its spectacular paintings (53.27.1), the
sudatorium Laconicum
(53.27.1) and the source to supply fresh water to it (54.11.7), which added to the time and cost of construction of the project (54.11.7), the Pantheon (53.27.2–3, 66.24.3) whose doors were flanked by statues of Agrippa and Augustus (53.27.3, 54.1.1), the
Sepulchrum
or
Aedes Agrippae
(54.28.5); his presence at Marcellus’ wedding (53.27.5), Agrippa’s move into Augustus’ house (53.27.5), his popularity with the people (53.31.4), the time Augustus gave Agrippa his signet ring (53.30.1–2), his alleged dismissal to the East (53.32.1), his stay in Mytilene (53.32.1), his recall to Sicily and offer of the hand of Iulia in marriage (54.6.5), his attempts to restore order in Rome (49.43.6), his departure to quell an uprising in Gaul (54.11.1–2), his arrival in Hispania to deal with an uprising of the Astures and Cantabri (54.11.3), his squashing of a mutiny by Roman troops and their conduct in the grim war (54.11.4–5), his rejection of the triumph granted him (54.11.6), completion of
Aqua Virgo
(54.11.7), grant of powers equivalent to Augustus’ (54.12.2), plots against Agrippa (54.15.1), his ownership of the Thracian Cheronese (54.29.5), his acclaim as restorer of Kyzikos’ freedom
(54.23.7), the revolt in the Cimmerian Bosporus (54.24.4–6), that he sent his after action report directly to Augustus (54.24.7), the grant of empire-wide powers jointly with Augustus (54.28.1), his departure to deal with the revolt of the Pannonii in Illyricum (54.28.2); his return to Italy and last days in Campania (54.28.2), the funeral in Rome (54.28.3–4), the burial of his ashes in Augustus’ own mausoleum (54.28.5) and the final disrespect shown by many senators (54.29.6).

Cornelius Nepos, c. 110–c. 25 BCE
– The contemporary Roman biographer from Gallia Cisalpina and friend of the poet C. Valerius Catullus recorded Agrippa’s emotional reaction when he learned that his father in law, T. Pomponius Atticus, had decided to commit suicide (
Atticus
21.1–4).

Eutropius, fourth century CE
– Eutropius was a government official based in Constantinople who served the Emperor Julian ‘The Apostate’ (361–363 CE) on his campaign against the Sassanids. He was alive during the reign of Emperor Valens (364–378 CE) to whom he dedicated his
Short Roman History
(
Breviarium Historiae Romanae
). This is a compendium in ten books of Roman history from the foundation of the city to the accession of Valens. In it, he mentions Agrippa’s great success in Aquitania (7.5).

Florus (Iulius Florus or L. Anneus Florus or P. Annius Florus), second century CE
– The precise identity of Florus continues to be debated (he may have been the poet, rhetorician and friend of the Emperor Hadrian), but the
Summary of Livy’s History
(
Epitome de T. Livio Bellorum Omnium Annorum DCC Libri Duo
) in two volumes summarizes all the main wars fought by Roman armies up to the time of his writing. In it he mentions the building of
Portus Iulius
(2.18.6) and recounts the Battle of Actium (2.21), and the Pannonian revolt in Illyricum (2.24).

Frontinus (Sex. Iulius Frontinus), c. 40–103 CE
– Frontinus was an accomplished patrician who rose through the
cursus publicus
, including the governorship of Britannia and with it command of the army which squashed the Silures of South Wales. Under Emperor Nerva, in 95 CE he was appointed
curator aquarum
, following in the footsteps of Agrippa. His book
De Aqueductu Urbis Romae
on the aqueducts and water distribution system of Rome contains details about Agrippa’s meticulous work when serving as aedile on the
Aqua Iulia
(
Aq
. 9) as well as the attentiveness and ingenuity of his full time staff (which he remarks was lacking by his own day), the
Aqua Virgo
(10), the standard type of pipes to be used (24), the infrastructure of tanks and towers managing the water distribution system (98), the full text of the
Senatus Consultum
regulating and preserving the public fountains after Agrippa’s death (104), and the administration and division of labour of the maintenance crews (116).

Horace (Q. Horatius Flaccus), 65–27 BCE
– Horace is regarded by many as Rome’s leading lyric poet from the time of Augustus. His life was almost exactly contemporary with Agrippa’s and, like him, he was considered an outsider.
Horace served as an officer in the army of the conspirators and was captured at the Battle of Philippi. Befriended by Maecenas, he came to the attention of Augustus. He wrote the ceremonial
Ode for the Century Games
(
Carmen Saeculare
) in 17 BCE at the request of Augustus and Agrippa. In his
Satires
he describes Agrippa as ‘cunning fox imitating a noble lion’ (
Sermones
2.3.186). Horace playfully declined in poetry that he was not grand enough to eulogize the general’s great military achievements in verse (
Carmen
1.6). Horace did, however, celebrate Agrippa’s victory over the Cantabri (
Epistulae
1.12.26–27).

Josephus (Yosef Ben Matityahu or T. Flavius Josephus), 37–100 CE
– The erstwhile leader of the resistance at Yodfat (Jotapata) during the First Jewish War of 66–73 CE, Josephus was a prolific writer under his Flavian benefactors, to whom he owed his life. In his
Antiquities of the Jews
(
Antiquitates Iudaicae
), published around 75 CE, he mentions the reason Augustus sent Agrippa to the East (
Ant. Iud
. 15.10.2), King Herodes’ visit to Mytilene to meet him and the incident with the Gadarenes (15.10.2), Herodes’ invitation to visit Iudaea and the ensuing state visit (16.12–16), the king’s support of Agrippa’s strategy in the Cimmerian Bosporus (16.20–21), Herodes’ success at negotiating the fine on the city of Illium (16.26), Agrippa’s and Herodes’ journey through Asia (16.22–26), preserves the investigation by the tribunal and letters Agrippa wrote to his
legati
after his verdict on the unlawful confiscation of Temple Tax dues (16.27–30, 16.60, 16.165, 16.167 and 16.169), Agrippa’s return to Rome with Antipatros (
Antiquitates Iudaeicae
16.86).