Pox (73 page)
Authors: Michael Willrich
65
Duffield v. Williamsport School District
, 162 Pa. 476, 482 (1894). “Note,”
PABOH 1903
, vol. II, 918.
Duffield v. Williamsport School District
, 162 Pa. 476, 482 (1894). “Note,”
PABOH 1903
, vol. II, 918.
66
Duffield v. Williamsport School District
, 162 Pa. 476 (1894). Boyd's
Directory of Williamsport
, 1899 (Reading, PA, 1899), 167, 402.
Historical Sketches of the Bench and Bar of Lycoming County, Pennsylvania
(1961),
http://www.lycolaw.org/history/sketches/20.htm
, accessed January 5, 2010. Tiedeman's own libertarianism diminished when he contemplated police control of the working class, and he concluded that compulsory vaccination was defensible. Tiedeman,
Limitations
, 32.
Duffield v. Williamsport School District
, 162 Pa. 476 (1894). Boyd's
Directory of Williamsport
, 1899 (Reading, PA, 1899), 167, 402.
Historical Sketches of the Bench and Bar of Lycoming County, Pennsylvania
(1961),
http://www.lycolaw.org/history/sketches/20.htm
, accessed January 5, 2010. Tiedeman's own libertarianism diminished when he contemplated police control of the working class, and he concluded that compulsory vaccination was defensible. Tiedeman,
Limitations
, 32.
69
See, e.g.,
Abeel v. Clark
, 84 Cal. 226 (1890);
Bissell v. Davison
, 65 Conn. 183 (1894);
Viemeister v. White
, 179 N.Y. 235 (1904). See “Compulsory Vaccination,”
Yale Law Journal
, 12 (1903): 504â6; “Public Schools: Conditions of Attendance,” ibid., 13 (1904): 261. “Bancroft SJC Jacobson Brief,” 8.
See, e.g.,
Abeel v. Clark
, 84 Cal. 226 (1890);
Bissell v. Davison
, 65 Conn. 183 (1894);
Viemeister v. White
, 179 N.Y. 235 (1904). See “Compulsory Vaccination,”
Yale Law Journal
, 12 (1903): 504â6; “Public Schools: Conditions of Attendance,” ibid., 13 (1904): 261. “Bancroft SJC Jacobson Brief,” 8.
71
Ibid.
Ibid.
72
Adams v. Burdge
, 95 Wis. 390, 400, 404, 405 (1897). “Silas U. Pinney (1833â1899),”
http://www.wicourts.gov/about/judges/supreme/retired/pinney.htm
, accessed January 6, 2010.
Adams v. Burdge
, 95 Wis. 390, 400, 404, 405 (1897). “Silas U. Pinney (1833â1899),”
http://www.wicourts.gov/about/judges/supreme/retired/pinney.htm
, accessed January 6, 2010.
74
Potts v. Breen
, 167 Ill. 67, 76 (1897). See also
State ex rel. Freeman v. Zimmerman
, 86 Minn. 353 (1902). Freund,
Police Power
, 116. The Kansas Supreme Court went even further, ruling that in the absence of clear legislative authority, a local board of education could not deny admission to an otherwise eligible pupil for failing to be vaccinated.
Osborn v. Russell
, 64 Kan. 507 (1902).
Potts v. Breen
, 167 Ill. 67, 76 (1897). See also
State ex rel. Freeman v. Zimmerman
, 86 Minn. 353 (1902). Freund,
Police Power
, 116. The Kansas Supreme Court went even further, ruling that in the absence of clear legislative authority, a local board of education could not deny admission to an otherwise eligible pupil for failing to be vaccinated.
Osborn v. Russell
, 64 Kan. 507 (1902).
76
“NoteâRight of Boards of Health to Make Vaccination Compulsory,”
Central Law Journal
, 54 (1902), 56. On the doctrine of overruling necessity, see Novak,
People's Welfare
, 72; W. P. Prentice,
Police Powers Arising Under the Law of Overruling Necessity
(New York: Banks & Brothers, 1894).
“NoteâRight of Boards of Health to Make Vaccination Compulsory,”
Central Law Journal
, 54 (1902), 56. On the doctrine of overruling necessity, see Novak,
People's Welfare
, 72; W. P. Prentice,
Police Powers Arising Under the Law of Overruling Necessity
(New York: Banks & Brothers, 1894).
77
Godcharles v. Wigeman
, Penn. 1886,
Atlantic Reporter
, 6 (1886), 354â56, esp. 356. “Compulsory Vaccination,”
Yaw Law Journal
, 10 (1901), 159.
Godcharles v. Wigeman
, Penn. 1886,
Atlantic Reporter
, 6 (1886), 354â56, esp. 356. “Compulsory Vaccination,”
Yaw Law Journal
, 10 (1901), 159.
78
“Vaccination Not Compulsory,”
NYT
, May 6, 1894, 16. “Decision on the Vaccinating Raid,” ibid., May 4, 1895, 9.
In the Matter of the Application of William H. Smith et all for a Writ of Habeas Corpus
, 146 N.Y. 68, 73, 78 (1895). Smith subsequently sued Brooklyn Health Commissioner Z. Taylor Emery for false imprisonment. The jury rendered a verdict for Smith, but the verdict was reversed on appeal.
Smith v. Emery
, 42 N.Y.S. 258 (1896).
“Vaccination Not Compulsory,”
NYT
, May 6, 1894, 16. “Decision on the Vaccinating Raid,” ibid., May 4, 1895, 9.
In the Matter of the Application of William H. Smith et all for a Writ of Habeas Corpus
, 146 N.Y. 68, 73, 78 (1895). Smith subsequently sued Brooklyn Health Commissioner Z. Taylor Emery for false imprisonment. The jury rendered a verdict for Smith, but the verdict was reversed on appeal.
Smith v. Emery
, 42 N.Y.S. 258 (1896).
79
“Bancroft SJC Jacobson Brief,” 9.
“Bancroft SJC Jacobson Brief,” 9.
84
“Compulsory Vaccination and Detention,” 361. “Jacobson SJC Brief,” 12; “Pear SJC Brief,” 12.
“Compulsory Vaccination and Detention,” 361. “Jacobson SJC Brief,” 12; “Pear SJC Brief,” 12.
87
State v. Hay
, 126 N.C. 999, 1004 (1900). “Jacobson SJC Brief,” 30, 31. “Those who pose a risk to the community can be required to submit to compulsory measures for the common good,” writes Lawrence Gostin of the harm avoidance principle. “The control measure itself, however, should not pose a health risk to its subject.” Lawrence O. Gostin,
Public Health Law: Power, Duty, Restraint
(Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2000), 69.
State v. Hay
, 126 N.C. 999, 1004 (1900). “Jacobson SJC Brief,” 30, 31. “Those who pose a risk to the community can be required to submit to compulsory measures for the common good,” writes Lawrence Gostin of the harm avoidance principle. “The control measure itself, however, should not pose a health risk to its subject.” Lawrence O. Gostin,
Public Health Law: Power, Duty, Restraint
(Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2000), 69.
88
Wong Wai v. Williamson
, 103 F. 1, 7, 10 (1900). Charles J. McLain,
In Search of Equality: The Chinese Struggle Against Discrimination in Nineteenth-Century America
(Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1994), 234â76. Henry Bixby Hemenway,
Legal Principles of Public Health Administration
(Chicago: T. H. Flood & Co., 1914), 633: “Few diseases have been more subjected to judicial inquiry than smallpox.” Tobey,
Public Health Law
(1926), 118: “A few decades ago, it seems as if the bulk of court decisions arose out of conditions in which smallpox was the principal factor.”
Wong Wai v. Williamson
, 103 F. 1, 7, 10 (1900). Charles J. McLain,
In Search of Equality: The Chinese Struggle Against Discrimination in Nineteenth-Century America
(Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1994), 234â76. Henry Bixby Hemenway,
Legal Principles of Public Health Administration
(Chicago: T. H. Flood & Co., 1914), 633: “Few diseases have been more subjected to judicial inquiry than smallpox.” Tobey,
Public Health Law
(1926), 118: “A few decades ago, it seems as if the bulk of court decisions arose out of conditions in which smallpox was the principal factor.”
89
“Jacobson SJC Brief,” 3, 14, 16, 18. “Pear SJC Brief,” 3, 14, 16, 18.
“Jacobson SJC Brief,” 3, 14, 16, 18. “Pear SJC Brief,” 3, 14, 16, 18.
90
“Marcus Perrin Knowlton,” memorial, 231 Mass. 615 (1919).
“Marcus Perrin Knowlton,” memorial, 231 Mass. 615 (1919).
94
“Virus Squad Out,”
BG
, Nov. 18, 1901, 7. Antivaccinationist literature after 1903 noted the noforce principle articulated in
Commonwealth v. Pear; Same v. Jacobson
. See, for example, Charles M. Higgins,
Open Your Eyes Wide! Parents, School Officers, Editors, Judges, Legislators, Doctors; And Look at These Facts About Vaccination
, 2d ed. (London: Anti-Vaccination League of America, 1912), 15.
“Virus Squad Out,”
BG
, Nov. 18, 1901, 7. Antivaccinationist literature after 1903 noted the noforce principle articulated in
Commonwealth v. Pear; Same v. Jacobson
. See, for example, Charles M. Higgins,
Open Your Eyes Wide! Parents, School Officers, Editors, Judges, Legislators, Doctors; And Look at These Facts About Vaccination
, 2d ed. (London: Anti-Vaccination League of America, 1912), 15.
95
Commonwealth v. Mugford; Same v. Same
, 183 Mass. 249. There was a straightforward reason why the SJC would identify
Jacobson
rather than
Pear
as governing.
Mugford
, like
Jacobson
, had raised two questions: constitutionality of the statute and admissibility of evidence. Like
Jacobson
,
Mugford
had tried to put vaccination itself on trial by presenting medical evidence as to its dangers.
Pear
had made only the constitutional case.
Commonwealth v. Mugford; Same v. Same
, 183 Mass. 249. There was a straightforward reason why the SJC would identify
Jacobson
rather than
Pear
as governing.
Mugford
, like
Jacobson
, had raised two questions: constitutionality of the statute and admissibility of evidence. Like
Jacobson
,
Mugford
had tried to put vaccination itself on trial by presenting medical evidence as to its dangers.
Pear
had made only the constitutional case.
96
“Jacobson USSC Transcript,” 21â22.
“Jacobson USSC Transcript,” 21â22.
97
See, e.g., J. C. Henderson, “An Appeal,”
Life
(New York), Sept. 24, 1903, 288; Stuart Close, “Drug Diseases and Compulsory Medicine,”
Medical Advance and Journal of Homeopathics
(Chicago), 41 (Nov. 1903), 588. On the Court's writ of certiorari, see Currie,
Constitution in the Supreme Court
, vol. 2, 5.
See, e.g., J. C. Henderson, “An Appeal,”
Life
(New York), Sept. 24, 1903, 288; Stuart Close, “Drug Diseases and Compulsory Medicine,”
Medical Advance and Journal of Homeopathics
(Chicago), 41 (Nov. 1903), 588. On the Court's writ of certiorari, see Currie,
Constitution in the Supreme Court
, vol. 2, 5.
98
Geoffrey T. Blodgett, “The Mind of the Boston Mugwump,”
Mississippi Valley Historical Review
, 48 (1962), 614â34. Gordon S. Wood, “The Massachusetts Mugwumps,”
New England Quarterly
, 33 (1960), 435â51. “Williams, George Fred,”
Who's Who in New England
, ed. Albert Nelson Marquis, (Chicago: A. N. Marquis & Company, 1916), 1160.
Geoffrey T. Blodgett, “The Mind of the Boston Mugwump,”
Mississippi Valley Historical Review
, 48 (1962), 614â34. Gordon S. Wood, “The Massachusetts Mugwumps,”
New England Quarterly
, 33 (1960), 435â51. “Williams, George Fred,”
Who's Who in New England
, ed. Albert Nelson Marquis, (Chicago: A. N. Marquis & Company, 1916), 1160.
99
“George Fred Williams' Platform,” in
The Commoner Condensed
, ed. William Jennings Bryan (Lincoln, NE: The Woodruff-Collins Printing Co., 1903), 344. George Fred Williams, “Our Real Masters,”
Arena
, Jan. 1903, 7â12. “In the Mirror of the Present,”
Arena
, Oct. 1906, 405â10, esp. 408.
Dunbar v. Dunbar
, 190 U.S. 340 (1903).
“George Fred Williams' Platform,” in
The Commoner Condensed
, ed. William Jennings Bryan (Lincoln, NE: The Woodruff-Collins Printing Co., 1903), 344. George Fred Williams, “Our Real Masters,”
Arena
, Jan. 1903, 7â12. “In the Mirror of the Present,”
Arena
, Oct. 1906, 405â10, esp. 408.
Dunbar v. Dunbar
, 190 U.S. 340 (1903).
100
Plaintiff in Error, Brief to the Supreme Court of the United States,
Jacobson v. Massachusetts
, No. 70âOctober Term, 1904 (hereafter “Jacobson USSC Brief ”), esp. 19. See also ibid., 11 (schools) and 26 (no exemptions). “Involves Vaccination Law,”
WP
, Dec. 7, 1904, 5. “Final Appeal on Vaccination,”
Boston Herald
, Dec. 7, 1904, 16.
Plaintiff in Error, Brief to the Supreme Court of the United States,
Jacobson v. Massachusetts
, No. 70âOctober Term, 1904 (hereafter “Jacobson USSC Brief ”), esp. 19. See also ibid., 11 (schools) and 26 (no exemptions). “Involves Vaccination Law,”
WP
, Dec. 7, 1904, 5. “Final Appeal on Vaccination,”
Boston Herald
, Dec. 7, 1904, 16.
102
“Jacobson USSC Brief,” 30â31.
“Jacobson USSC Brief,” 30â31.
103
Lisa Paddock, “Harlan, John Marshall,” American National Biography Online,
http://www.anb.org/articles/11/11-00385.html
; accessed Jul. 21, 2010. See Linda Przybyszewski,
The Republic According to John Marshall Harlan
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999).
Lisa Paddock, “Harlan, John Marshall,” American National Biography Online,
http://www.anb.org/articles/11/11-00385.html
; accessed Jul. 21, 2010. See Linda Przybyszewski,
The Republic According to John Marshall Harlan
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999).
104
Plessy v. Ferguson
, 163 U.S. 537, 559 (1896).
Northern Securities Co. v. U.S.
, 193 U.S. 197, 351 (1904).
Plessy v. Ferguson
, 163 U.S. 537, 559 (1896).
Northern Securities Co. v. U.S.
, 193 U.S. 197, 351 (1904).
111
“Compulsory Vaccination,” editorial,
Wisconsin Medical Journal
, 3 (March 1905), 588. Dr. Hix of Binghamton, New York, in New York State Department of Health,
Proceedings of the Conference of Sanitary Officers of the State of New York
(Albany, 1905), 38. “Compulsory Vaccination,”
Boston Journal
, Feb. 22, 1905, 6. Untitled editorial,
NYT
, Feb. 22, 1905, 6. See also “Vaccination Right,”
BG
, Feb. 21, 1905, 7; “Vaccination by Law
,
”
WP
, Feb. 21, 1905, 11; “A Test Case,”
CC
, Feb. 25, 1905, 12.
“Compulsory Vaccination,” editorial,
Wisconsin Medical Journal
, 3 (March 1905), 588. Dr. Hix of Binghamton, New York, in New York State Department of Health,
Proceedings of the Conference of Sanitary Officers of the State of New York
(Albany, 1905), 38. “Compulsory Vaccination,”
Boston Journal
, Feb. 22, 1905, 6. Untitled editorial,
NYT
, Feb. 22, 1905, 6. See also “Vaccination Right,”
BG
, Feb. 21, 1905, 7; “Vaccination by Law
,
”
WP
, Feb. 21, 1905, 11; “A Test Case,”
CC
, Feb. 25, 1905, 12.
112
Untitled editorial item,
Book Notes
, May 6, 1905, 71. “Compulsory Vaccination,”
Medical Advance
, March 1905, 166. On antivaccinationism in the 1910s and 1920s, see James Colgrove,
State of Immunity
, 45â80.
Untitled editorial item,
Book Notes
, May 6, 1905, 71. “Compulsory Vaccination,”
Medical Advance
, March 1905, 166. On antivaccinationism in the 1910s and 1920s, see James Colgrove,
State of Immunity
, 45â80.
114
Lochner v. New York
, 198 U.S. 45 ( 1905). E. F. [Ernst Freund], “Limitations of Hours of Labor and the Federal Supreme Court,”
Green Bag
, 17 (July 1905), 411â17.
Lochner v. New York
, 198 U.S. 45 ( 1905). E. F. [Ernst Freund], “Limitations of Hours of Labor and the Federal Supreme Court,”
Green Bag
, 17 (July 1905), 411â17.
117
Charles Warren, “The Progressiveness of the United States Supreme Court,”
Columbia Law Review
, 13 (1913). On the “myth” of
Lochner
, see William J. Novak, “The Myth of the âWeak' American State,”
American Historical Review
, 113 (2008): 752â72. For a fuller discussion of legal progressivism and the police power after Lochner, see Willrich,
City of Courts
, esp. 96â115. See also Morton J. Horwitz,
The Transformation of American Law, 1870â1960: The Crisis of Legal Orthodoxy
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1992).
Charles Warren, “The Progressiveness of the United States Supreme Court,”
Columbia Law Review
, 13 (1913). On the “myth” of
Lochner
, see William J. Novak, “The Myth of the âWeak' American State,”
American Historical Review
, 113 (2008): 752â72. For a fuller discussion of legal progressivism and the police power after Lochner, see Willrich,
City of Courts
, esp. 96â115. See also Morton J. Horwitz,
The Transformation of American Law, 1870â1960: The Crisis of Legal Orthodoxy
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1992).
118
William Howard Taft,
The Anti-Trust Act and the Supreme Court
(New York: Harper & Brothers, 1914), 43â44, 45.
William Howard Taft,
The Anti-Trust Act and the Supreme Court
(New York: Harper & Brothers, 1914), 43â44, 45.
119
Investigation Case Files of the Bureau of Investigation 1908â1922, Old German Files, 1909â1921, National Archives and Record Administration, Case # 17615; Case Title: Sedition; Suspect Name: Lora C. Little. Ibid., Case # 175676; Case Title: Neutrality Matter; Suspect Name: William Heupel. Ibid., Case # 178488; Case Title: General War Matter; Suspect Name: Mrs. Walter B. Henderson. I accessed these files via the online database
Footnote.com
, Dec. 10, 2007.
Investigation Case Files of the Bureau of Investigation 1908â1922, Old German Files, 1909â1921, National Archives and Record Administration, Case # 17615; Case Title: Sedition; Suspect Name: Lora C. Little. Ibid., Case # 175676; Case Title: Neutrality Matter; Suspect Name: William Heupel. Ibid., Case # 178488; Case Title: General War Matter; Suspect Name: Mrs. Walter B. Henderson. I accessed these files via the online database
Footnote.com
, Dec. 10, 2007.
120
Holmes to Hand, June 24, 1918, in Gerald Gunther, “Learned Hand and the Origins of Modern First Amendment Doctrine: Some Fragments of History,”
Stanford Law Review
, 27 (1975), Appendix, 757.
Holmes to Hand, June 24, 1918, in Gerald Gunther, “Learned Hand and the Origins of Modern First Amendment Doctrine: Some Fragments of History,”
Stanford Law Review
, 27 (1975), Appendix, 757.
121
Schenck v. U.S.
, 249 U.S. 47, 52 (1919).
Abrams v. U.S.
, 250 U.S. 616, 628 (1919), emphasis added. For a fascinating analysis of “Holmes's Transformation in
Abrams
,” see David M. Rabban,
Free Speech in Its Forgotten Years
, 346â54.
Schenck v. U.S.
, 249 U.S. 47, 52 (1919).
Abrams v. U.S.
, 250 U.S. 616, 628 (1919), emphasis added. For a fascinating analysis of “Holmes's Transformation in
Abrams
,” see David M. Rabban,
Free Speech in Its Forgotten Years
, 346â54.
123
Michigan v. Tyler
, 436 U.S. 499, 509 (1977).
Hamdi v. Rumsfeld
, 542 U.S. 508, 592 (2004) (Justice Thomas dissenting opinion).
Michigan v. Tyler
, 436 U.S. 499, 509 (1977).
Hamdi v. Rumsfeld
, 542 U.S. 508, 592 (2004) (Justice Thomas dissenting opinion).
124
Concurring opinion in
Doe v. Bolton
, 410 U.S. 179, 213â14 (1973). Majority opinion in
Planned Parenthood v. Casey
, 404 U.S. 833, 857 (1992).
EPILOGUEConcurring opinion in
Doe v. Bolton
, 410 U.S. 179, 213â14 (1973). Majority opinion in
Planned Parenthood v. Casey
, 404 U.S. 833, 857 (1992).
1
BOSHD 1902
, 36. Michael R. Albert et al., “The Last Smallpox Epidemic in Boston and the Vaccination Controversy, 1901â1903,”
NEJM
, 344 (2001), 377. John Duffy,
A History of Public Health in New York City,
564. Gretchen A. Condran et al., “The Decline in Mortality in Philadelphia from 1870â1930: The Role of Municipal Services,” in
Sickness and Health in America
, 3rd ed., ed. Judith Walzer Leavitt and Ronald L. Numbers, 452â66. “Seattle's worst smallpox epidemic was in 1901â02; 642 reported cases, four deaths.” “Medicine: Smallpox Epidemic,”
Time
, Apr. 8, 1946.
BOSHD 1902
, 36. Michael R. Albert et al., “The Last Smallpox Epidemic in Boston and the Vaccination Controversy, 1901â1903,”
NEJM
, 344 (2001), 377. John Duffy,
A History of Public Health in New York City,
564. Gretchen A. Condran et al., “The Decline in Mortality in Philadelphia from 1870â1930: The Role of Municipal Services,” in
Sickness and Health in America
, 3rd ed., ed. Judith Walzer Leavitt and Ronald L. Numbers, 452â66. “Seattle's worst smallpox epidemic was in 1901â02; 642 reported cases, four deaths.” “Medicine: Smallpox Epidemic,”
Time
, Apr. 8, 1946.
2
C.-E. A. Winslow, “The Untilled Fields of Public Health,”
SCI
, 51 (Jan. 9, 1920), 30. On this point, see James A. Tobey,
Public Health Law
, 1â6. Franklin H. Top and Laura E. Peck, “A Small Outbreak of Smallpox in Detroit,”
AJPH
, 33 (1943): 490â98, esp. 491, 492.
C.-E. A. Winslow, “The Untilled Fields of Public Health,”
SCI
, 51 (Jan. 9, 1920), 30. On this point, see James A. Tobey,
Public Health Law
, 1â6. Franklin H. Top and Laura E. Peck, “A Small Outbreak of Smallpox in Detroit,”
AJPH
, 33 (1943): 490â98, esp. 491, 492.
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