Read Psychology for Dummies Online
Authors: Adam Cash
Tags: #Psychology, #General, #Body; Mind & Spirit, #Spirituality
Psychology for Dummies (30 page)
Variable interval reinforcement is what gambling is based on. Casinos program the machines to pay out on a variable interval schedule so that we’ll just keep pumping the money in, waiting for that big payoff. You can’t win if you don’t play. So the next time you think you’re “due” or bound to win because you’ve been sitting at the same machine for three days (without a shower, sleep, or anything to eat), remember that it’s all variable. You never know when the machine is going to hit. And don’t get ticked off if you finally give up and the next person who sits down wins it all! That’s why they call it gambling.
Have you ever noticed how people slow down on the freeway when they see a state trooper? That’s probably because they’ve all gotten tickets from them at one time or another. What happens when a good old city cop is on the road? Nobody slows down. They just ignore him. Is this an example of a blatant disrespect for the law? No. It’s an example of
stimulus control
, the idea that a response can vary as a function of the stimulus present at the time of reinforcement or punishment. Although both law enforcement authorities can give tickets for speeding, most of us know that city cops don’t typically give tickets on the highway. The stimuli have different effects on our behavior because they have led to different consequences. Punishment only comes from the trooper.
Sometimes, when we learn a response due to reinforcement, we may automatically
generalize
that response to other similar stimuli. If I generalized my state trooper ticket experience to city cops, I would slow down for city cops, too. Or, if I’m reinforced for coming back from lunch on time, I might also generalize that behavior to coming to work in the morning on time. Generaliza-tion helps speed up the learning process because we don’t have time to receive reinforcement for every single response we elicit. (For more information on generalization, check out Chapter 8).
Sometimes people can over-learn a response or behavior. They then engage in the response when they shouldn’t because they’ve generalized a little too much. I think this happens to psychotherapists sometimes. We may be in a social situation, not working, when someone starts talking about how hard his or her day was. “Tell me how that makes you feel,” may slip out. Everyone looks at the psychotherapist in question like a quack. Maybe it’s time for a vacation.
I’ve also seen this phenomenon in movies. An ex-cop overreacts to seeing his grandson point a water pistol at him, and he takes the kid down to “remove the threat.” These are problems of
discrimination,
responding to only one of two or more particular stimuli. The problem is remedied by presenting someone with both stimuli and only reinforcing the response to the correct one. Put grandpa in the middle of a hold-up and throw his grandson with a water pistol into the mix. Only reinforce the Detective Grandpa when he successfully neutralizes the threat of the robber (stimulus 1) and not for taking grandson out (stimulus 2). He’s learned to discriminate between a real threat and a benign one.
In this part . . .
P
art V introduces psychoanalysis and the work of Sigmund Freud. I begin with the basic structure of the psyche and follow that up with Freud’s theory of psychosexual development, along with a discussion on the famous defense mechanisms, such as denial and repression. I also introduce you to the second generation of psychoanalysts, Anna Freud, Erik Erikson, and others.
Next, I introduce you to personality theory and the most common personality types. This part goes on to cover topics such as knowing yourself, developing identities, forming relationships, and communicating — social stuff, as the title of Part V implies. I also discuss the influence that others have on our behavior and the different ways that individuals behave in groups. Finally, I take a look at developmental psychology and briefly trace development from conception to adolescence.
In This Chapter
Building the structure of the personality
Moving around inside the psyche
Growing toward sexual maturity
Defending oneself
F ewer names are more famous in psychology than that of Sigmund Freud. Was it because he had a sexy, Sean Connery-like personality? Well, not exactly. But his ideas are all around us. They show up in films, art, and even our everyday conversations. “You made a Freudian slip!” is a phrase you might hear at the office, on the elevator, or in your favorite television program. All of us make Freudian slips from time to time, some minor, some serious. Have you ever called someone by the wrong name because you were thinking of that other person? (I don’t recommend it if you’re seriously dating or married.) Although I wouldn’t put him up there with Coke or Nike, Freud can be considered a household name, at least when it comes to psychology. You’ve probably seen Woody Allen anxiously rambling, perfectly demonstrating Freud’s ideas of psychological defense mechanisms and psychic anxiety. And I bet you’ve had at least one “anal” boss at work who pushes your stress levels to new heights as he fixates on the smallest details and the most insignificant mistakes in your work. Freud’s impact is unmistakable. But what exactly was he talking about?
Freud formulated one of the most comprehensive theories of human personality ever created. The depths of his analysis and range of ideas are yet to be rivaled. But what exactly is a personality? We talk about personalities all the time. You’ve probably heard people justify dating an unattractive person. “He’s got a great personality!” they say. Basically,
personality
is the organized psychological and physical components inside a person that create and determine that individual’s unique characteristics and behaviors.
There are several key points here:
Personalities are both psychological and physical. They exist as parts of our minds and brains.
• We all know that psychological or mental abuse can hurt as much as physical abuse, and such abuse can shape our personalities. As our minds or mental life are affected, so too are our personalities.
• As for the physical aspects of personality, if someone was to suffer brain damage from a car accident, his personality could be altered. He may be grouchier than usual, or more spontaneous and care-free. Either way, if his brain is altered, his personality could be affected.
Our personalities create and determine what we do. What goes on inside your mind and brain shapes how you act, what you say, how you feel, and how you perceive the world.
Perhaps most importantly, our personalities are what make us unique. Tens or hundreds of people around the world may have the same name as you or may look like you, but nobody has your identical personality. If you go to a party after work, are you the same person as you are at work? Of course you may act a little different, but most likely you’re still the same basic person. This is because of your personality, your unique set of psychological and physical components that determine who you are.
This chapter explores Freud’s thoughts on memory, instincts, and the famous defense mechanisms (actually the work of his daughter, Anna Freud) and how they contribute to make us who we are, possessors of a one-of-a-kind personality. Of course, no discussion of Freud would ever be complete without mentioning his theory of psychosexual development and the ideas about Oedipus and sex!