Red Skin, White Masks: Rejecting the Colonial Politics of Recognition (Indigenous Americas) (35 page)
Authors: Glen Sean Coulthard
Tags: #SOC021000 Social Science / Ethnic Studies / Native American Studies
Conclusion
1.
See my discussion of the work of Taiaiake Alfred and Leanne Simpson below.
2.
Fanon,
The Wretched of the Earth
, 168 (emphasis added).
3.
Ibid., 159–60.
4.
See in particular, Alfred,
Peace, Power, Righteousness
; Alfred,
Wasáse
; Simpson,
Dancing on Our Turtle’s Back
.
5.
Alfred,
Peace, Power, Righteousness
, xiii; Alfred,
Wasáse
, 19. Simpson,
Dancing on Our Turtle’s Back
, 17.
6.
Alfred,
Wasáse
, 19.
7.
Simpson,
Dancing on Our Turtle’s Back
, 17.
8.
Alfred,
Peace, Power, Righteousness
, 5 (emphasis added).
9.
Simpson,
Dancing on Our Turtle’s Back
, 17–18.
10.
Alfred,
Peace, Power, Righteousness
, xviii, 66, 80–88.
11.
Ibid., xiii.
12.
Simpson,
Dancing on Our Turtle’s Back
, 22.
13.
Ibid.
14.
Alfred,
Peace, Power, Righteousness
, xiii (emphasis added).
15.
Ibid., xviii.
16.
Simpson,
Dancing on Our Turtle’s Back
, 51.
17.
Ibid.
18.
Alfred,
Peace, Power Righteousness
, xviii.
19.
Alfred,
Wasáse
, 22.
20.
Ibid., 23.
21.
Ibid., 84.
22.
Chris Finley, “Decolonizing the Queer Native Body (and Recovering the Native Bull-Dyke): Bringing ‘Sexy Back’ and out of Native Studies’ Closet,” in
Queer Indigenous Studies: Critical Interventions in Theory, Politics, and Literature
, ed. Qwo-Li Driskill, Chris Finley, Brian Joseph Gilley, and Scott Lauria Morgensen, 31–42 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2011); and Andrea Smith, “Queer Theory and Native Studies: The Heteronormativity of Settler-Colonialism,” in Qwo-Li Driskill, et al.,
Queer Indigenous Studies
, 43–65.
23.
Leanne Simpson, “Queering Resurgence: Taking on Heteropatriarchy in Indigenous Nation-Building,”
Mamawipawin: Indigenous Governence and Community Based Research Space
, June 1, 2012,
http://130.179.14.66/blog/
.
24.
Emma LaRoque, “Métis and Feminist,” in
Making Space for Indigenous Feminism
, ed. Joyce Green (Halifax: Fernwood, 2007), 63–64.
25.
Simpson,
Dancing on Our Turtle’s Back
, 60–61, 105–9.
26.
Simpson, “Queering Resurgence.”
27.
Alfred,
Wasáse
, 40–45.
28.
Alfred,
Peace, Power, Righteousness
, 56.
29.
Ibid.
30.
Monture,
Thunder in My Soul
.
31.
Alfred,
Wasáse
, 180.
32.
Government of Canada, Bill C-45 Jobs and Growth Act, December 14, 2012,
http://www.parl.gc.ca/LegisInfo/BillDetails.aspx?Language=E&Mode=1&Bill=C45&Parl=41&Ses=1
.
33.
“9 Questions about Idle No More,” CBC News, January 5, 2013,
http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/9-questions-about-idle-no-more-1.1301843
.
34.
The Canadian Press, “First Nation blockade in Sarnia coming down,”
CBC News
, January 2, 2013,
http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/windsor/first-nation-blockade-in-sarnia-coming-down-1.1323922
.
35.
Kevin Griffin, “Metro Vancouver Idle No More rallies to continue despite Harper’s decision to meet native leaders,”
Ottawa Citizen
, January 4, 2013,
http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/windsor/first-nation-blockade-in-sarnia-coming-down-1.1323922
.
36.
Christie Blachford, “Inevitable Puffery and Horse Manure Surrounds Hunger Strike While Real Aboriginal Problems Forgotten,”
National Post
, December 27, 2012,
http://fullcomment.nationalpost.com/2012/12/27/christie-blatchford-inevitable-puffery-and-horse-manure-surrounds-hunger-strike-while-real-aboriginal-problems-forgotten/
.
37.
Kelly McParland, “Idle No More Has Been Seized by Occupying Forces,”
National Post
, January 17, 2013,
http://fullcomment.nationalpost.com/2013/01/17/kelly-mcparland-idle-no-more-has-been-seized-by-occupying-forces/
.
38.
Pamela Palmater, “Why We Are Idle No More,”
Ottawa Citizen
, December 29, 2012,
http://www2.canada.com/ottawacitizen/news/archives/story.html?id=63dd9779-10eb-4807-bd47-223817524aa2
.
39.
Leanne Simpson, “Fish Broth and Fasting,”
DividedNoMore Blog
, January 16, 2013,
http://dividednomore.ca/2013/01/16/fish-broth-fasting/
.
40.
Russell Diabo, “Mr. Harper, One Short Meeting Won’t End Native Protests,”
Toronto Globe and Mail
, January 11, 2013,
http://www.theglobeandmail.com/globe-debate/mr-harper-one-short-meeting-wont-end-native-protests/article7209111/
.
41.
Arthur Manual, “Idle No More, the Effective Voice of Indigenous Peoples: Current AFN Negotiations with Prime Minister a Go-Nowhere Approach,”
The Media Co-op
, January 14, 2013,
http://www.mediacoop.ca/fr/story/idle-no-more-effective-voice-indigenous-peoples/15603
.
42.
Thomson Reuters, “First Nation Chief threatens to Block Resource Development,”
Financial Post
, January 10, 2013,
http://business.financialpost.com/2013/01/10/first-nations-chief-threatens-to-block-resource-development/?__lsa=ff88-c6c5
.
43.
John Robson, “Don’t Brush off Grand Chief Derek Nepinak,”
Sun News Straight Talk
, January 13, 2013,
http://www.sunnewsnetwork.ca/sunnews/straighttalk/archives/2013/01/20130113-101523.html
.
44.
“Idle No More Protesters Stall Railway Lines, Highways,” CBC News, January 16, 2013,
http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/idle-no-more-protesters-stall-railway-lines-highways-1.1303452
.
45.
Indian Country Today Media Network Staff, “Chief Theresa Spence Ends Fast with 13-Point Declaration of Commitment to First Nations,” Indian Country Today, January 24, 2013,
http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2013/01/24/chief-theresa-spence-ends-fast-13-point-declaration-commitment-first-nations-147195
.
46.
Natalie Stechyson, “Idle No More Movement Fizzles Out Online, Analysis Finds,”
Vancouver Sun
, February 10, 2013,
http://www.vancouversun.com/news/national/Idle+More+movement+fizzles+online+analysis+finds/7945480/story.html
.
47.
Benjamin Aube, “Negotiations, Not Blockades, Lead to Change,”
Global News
, January 25, 2013,
http://www.timminspress.com/2013/01/25/negotiations-not-blockades-lead-to-change
.
48.
“Aboriginals Insist Meeting with Stephen Harper Must Fix ‘Broken’ System,”
Calgary Herald
, January 4, 2013,
http://o.canada.com/news/national/stephen-harper-to-meet-aboriginal-leaders-next-week/
.
49.
Armina Ligaya, “Less Than Half of Canadians Support the Idle No More Movement: Poll,”
National Post
, January 21, 2013,
http://news.nationalpost.com/2013/01/21/almost-half-of-canadians-do-not-support-idle-no-more-movement-poll/
.
50.
Friedrich Nietzsche,
On the Genealogy of Morals and Ecce Homo
(New York: Vintage, 1989), 36–37.
51.
Ibid., 37.
52.
Fanon,
Black Skin, White Masks
(2008), 197.
53.
Miles Howe, “Showdown in Elsipogtog: Seven Months of Shale Gas Resistance in New Brunswick,”
The Dominion
, January 14, 2014,
http://dominion.mediacoop.ca/story/showdown-elsipogtog/20423
.
54.
Shiri Pasternak, “The Economics of Insurgency: Thoughts on Idle No More and Critical Infrastructure,”
The Media Co-Op
, January 14, 2013,
http://www.mediacoop.ca/story/economics-insurgency/15610
.
55.
Naomi Klein, “Dancing the World into Being: A Conversation with Leanne Simpson,”
Yes Magazine
, March 5, 2013,
http://www.yesmagazine.org/peace-justice/dancing-the-world-into-being-a-conversation-with-idle-no-more-leanne-simpson
.
56.
Rauna Kuokkanen, “Indigenous Economies, Theories of Subsistence, and Women,”
American Indian Quarterly
35, no. 2 (2011): 219.
57.
On the relevance of cooperative and workplace democracy models of economic development to Indigenous societies, see Gurston Dacks, “Worker-Controlled Native Enterprises: A Vehicle for Community Development in Northern Canada,”
Canadian Journal of Native Studies
, 3, no. 2 (1983): 289–310; Lou Ketilson and Ian MacPherson,
Aboriginal Co-operatives in Canada: Current Situation and Potential for Growth
(Saskatoon: Centre for the Study of Co-operatives, 2001). Also see Ruttan and T’Seleie, “Renewable Resource Potentials for Alternative Development.”
58.
Kuokkanen, “Indigenous Economies, Theories of Subsistence, and Women,” 223.
59.
Environics Institute,
Urban Aboriginal Peoples Study
(Toronto: Published by Environics Institute, 2012), 6. Available online at
http://uaps.ca/
.
60.
Jean Barman, “Erasing Indigenous Indigeneity in Vancouver,”
BC Studies
No. 155 (2007), 3–30; Amber Dean, “Space, Temporality, History: Encountering Hauntings in Vancouver’s Downtown Eastside,” in
The West and Beyond: New Perspectives on an Imagined Region
, ed. Alvin Finkle, Sarah Carter, and Peter Fortna, 113–32 (Athabasca, Alta.: Athabasca University Press, 2010).
61.
Jean Barman, “Erasing Indigenous Indigeneity in Vancouver,” 6.
62.
Ibid., 6–7.
63.
John Tobias, “Protection, Civilization, Assimilation: An Outline History of Canada’s Indian Policy,” in
Sweet Promises: A Reader on Indian–White Relations in Canada
, ed. J. R. Miller (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991), 136.
64.
Barman, “Erasing Indigenous Indigeneity in Vancouver,” 7.
65.
Sherene Razack, “Gendered Racial Violence and Spatialized Justice: The Murder of Pamela George,” in
Race, Space and the Law: Unmapping a White Settler Society
, ed. Sherene Razack (Halifax: Between the Lines, 2002), 129.
66.
Ibid.
67.
Loretta Lees, Tom Slater, and Elvin Wyly,
Gentrification
(New York: Routledge, 2008).
68.
Neil Smith,
The New Urban Frontier: Gentrification and the Revanchist City
(New York: Routledge, 1996); Nicholas Blomley,
Unsettling the City: Urban Land and the Politics of Property
(New York: Routledge, 2004); and Dean, “Space, Temporality, History.”
69.
Lawrence,
“Real” Indians and Others
, 246.
70.
Ibid., 232.
71.
Ibid., 233–34.
72.
Ibid., 233.
73.
Ibid., 246.
74.
Dory Nason, “We Hold Our Hands Up: On Indigenous Women’s Love and Resistance,”
Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education, and Society Blog
, February 12, 2013,
http://decolonization.wordpress.com/2013/02/12/we-hold-our-hands-up-on-indigenous-womens-love-and-resistance/
.
75.
Native Women’s Association of Canada, “Missing and Murdered Aboriginal Women and Girls in British Columbia, Canada” briefing paper published by the Native Women’s Association of Canada for the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Ottawa, 2012, 3.
76.
Pierre Bourdieu,
In Other Words: Essays toward a Reflexive Sociology
(Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990), 127.
77.
Lawrence,
“Real” Indians and Others
, 69.
78.
Nason, “We Hold Our Hands Up.”
79.
Turner,
This Is Not a Peace Pipe
, 5.
80.
Ibid., 31.
Aamjiwnaag First Nation,
161
Abele, Frances,
59
Aboriginal Healing Foundation,
121–22
Aboriginal Pipeline Group (APG),
76
Act for the Gradual Enfranchisement of Indians (1869),
84
Advisory Commission on the Development of Government in the Northwest Territories,
56
Agreement in Principle (1976),
67–68
,
69–71
Alfred, Taiaiake: on Canada’s approach to reconciliation,
122
,
127
,
187n53
; Dale Turner’s critique of,
45–46
; on the goal of Indigenous self-determination,
35–36
; on Indigenous expressions of nationhood,
64
; on the persistence of colonial structures,
9
,
42
,
48
,
51
; on the role of personal and collective transformation,
151
; on state responsibility for violence,
120
; theorization of Indigenous resurgence,
154–59
Algonquins of Barriere Lake,
117
,
167
Améry, Jean,
108
,
109
,
111
,
114
,
208n27
Anderson, Kim,
158
Angus, Ian,
52
Anthologie de la nouvelle poésie nègre at malgache de langue française
(Senghor),
136–37
Anti-Semite and Jew
(Sartre),
133–36
Assembly of First Nations (AFN): adoption of “recognition” language,
1–2
; Idle No More and,
161
,
162
,
163
,
164
; against individual rights,
86
,
95
; participation in constitutional conferences,
89
Assembly of Manitoba Chiefs,
163
,
164
Atleo, Shawn (Chief),
106
Attawapiskat Cree Nation,
128
Barker, Joanne,
85–86
Barry, Brian,
18
Being and Nothingness
(Sartre),
134
Benhabib, Seyla,
79–102
Berger, Thomas (Justice),
59
,
200n90
Bill C-45,
24
,
127–28
,
160
,
164
,
165
Bill of Rights (1960),
85
,
86
,
95
black activism. See
negritude
movement
“Black Orpheus” (Sartre),
131
,
136–37
,
144
Black Skin, White Masks
(Fanon): on the colonized subject,
17–18
,
26
,
31–32
,
44
; critique of Hegel’s master/slave dialectic,
16–17
,
40
,
139
; on the dual structure of colonialism,
33
,
113
; on negritude,
131
,
139–48
; on the value of negation,
169
. See also Fanon, Frantz
Blake, Philip,
62–63
Blatchford, Christie,
161
Blomley, Nicholas,
175
Blondin, George,
61
Bound by Recognition
(Markell),
29
Bourdieu, Pierre,
177
British Columbia: antipipeline campaigns,
165
;
Delgamuukw
case and,
41
; First Nations blockades in,
117
,
164
; murdered and missing Indigenous women,
167
; Nisga’a claim to lands in,
5
Brown, Wendy,
101
Brudholm, Thomas,
107–8
,
110–11
,
126
Buchanan, Judd,
69
Cairns, Alan,
182n8
Calder, Frank (Chief),
5
Calgary Winter Olympics (1988),
117
Canada: agreement with Dene Nation and Metis Association,
75–76
; apology for residential schools (2008),
105
,
124–25
,
126
; assimilationist policy,
3
,
4
,
5
,
12–13
,
174
; definition of Indigenous status,
84
; having “no history of colonialism,”
105–6
,
108
; Idle No More and,
160
,
163
; legitimacy of sovereignty,
91–92
; loss of control over “Indian Problem,”
118
; as a multinational state,
37
; Native claims policy,
5–6
,
58–59
,
66
,
122
,
195n12
; “recognition” of aboriginal rights,
2
,
71–73
,
155
,
163
; role of Indigenous labor in,
12–13
;
terra nullius
argument,
91
,
100
,
175
; turn to reconciliation politics,
105–7
,
118–20
,
155–56
. See also settler-colonialism; individual provinces
Canadian Labor Congress,
69
capitalism: colonialism and,
7–8
,
10–11
,
172
; as a condition of cultural accommodation,
66
; discourse of sustainability,
77
; ecological critique of,
14
; incommensurability with Indigenous values,
62
,
158–59
,
173
; primitive accumulation,
7–11
,
13
,
60
,
151–52
,
184n35
,
186
(nn41,
45
); racism and,
136
,
137–38
; as a social relation,
11
,
33
; state ideology and,
32
Cardinal, Harold,
69
Carrothers Commission,
56
Caute, David,
132
Césaire, Aimé,
138
,
145–46
,
212n4
Charlottetown Accord (1992),
20
,
89–91
Charter of Rights and Freedoms,
87–88
,
90
,
91
,
92
,
119
,
159
Chipewyan Dene,
54
The
Claims of Culture
(Benhabib),
80
,
81
,
99
colonized subjects: dangers of assimilation,
46
; internalization of colonial status,
31–33
,
39
,
42
,
112–13
,
191n34
; “psycho-affective” attachment to colonial structure,
17–18
,
26
,
152–53
;
ressentiment
and,
109
,
113–14
,
142
;
ressentiment
-infected nostalgia of,
147
; self-essentializing of,
145
; self-objectification of,
139
; self-recognition of,
43–44
,
114–15
,
131
. See also settler-colonialism
Committee for Original Peoples’ Entitlement (COPE),
57
Communist Manifesto
(Marx and Engels),
185n39
Constitution Act of 1982,
2
,
20
,
87–90
,
92
,
115
,
116
,
123
culture: colonialism and the misuse of,
94
,
96
,
103
; defined,
65–66
; as a fluid, contested system,
82
,
93
,
156
; hybridity of,
205n54
; liberation of territory and,
148
; male-dominated interpretations of,
91
; preservationist approaches to,
80–81
,
92–93
; in racism,
146–47
,
215n85
; separated from politics,
66
,
71
,
72
,
123
,
147
,
204n46
; as transitional category of identification,
153
; universal rights and,
70
,
92–93
. See also identity
Dancing on Our Turtle’s Back
(Simpson),
148
,
158
Dean, Amber,
175
De Angelis, Massimo,
184n35
Deloria, Vine, Jr.,
60
democracy: anti-essentialist projects in,
102
; deliberative,
79–80
,
81
,
82
,
99
; direct or consensus-based,
73
Dene Nation: Agreement in Principle (1976),
67–68
,
69–71
; Agreement in Principle (1988),
75
,
76
; on cultural diversity,
51
; Declaration (1975),
1
,
53
,
64
,
69–71
; “Denendeh” proposal,
73–75
,
171–72
,
199n76
; land claims,
67–75
,
202n118
; Mackenzie Valley pipeline plan and,
6
,
57
; Metro Proposal (1977),
70–71
; on powerlessness over land administration,
56
; withdrawal of funding for secretariat,
76
Denendeh,
53–54
Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development (DIAND),
85
Dogrib language,
61
Dosman, Edgar,
57
Drury, Charles (Bud),
72
Edmonton Report,
69
Elsipogtog, New Brunswick,
165
,
170
,
173
Environmental Assessment Act,
127
,
160
Erasmus, Georges (Chief),
67
,
118
,
199n76
,
202n118
Fanon, Frantz: advocacy of violence,
31
,
47
; articulation of colonialism,
16
; on cultural racism,
146–47
,
215n85
; on Hegel’s master/slave dialectic,
25
; identification of asymmetrical forms of recognition,
25
,
190n31
; insights into
ressentiment,
109
,
113–15
,
128–29
; investigation of colonial psychology,
26
; lived experience as black person,
32
; on negritude,
139–48
,
212n4
; on Octave Mannoni,
214n47
; promotion of self-affirmative cultural practices,
23
; on Sartre’s characterization of negritude,
141–42
,
144
,
215n71
; on the self-recognition of the colonized,
131
; “stretching” of Marxist paradigm,
34
; on the value of negation,
169
FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation),
200n86
Ferro, Marc,
105
Fiddler, Alvin,
164
Finely, Chris,
157
Fisheries Act,
160
Foster, John Bellamy,
13
The
Fourth World
(Manuel and Posluns),
1
,
68–69
Fraser, Nancy,
19
,
27
,
34
,
36–37
,
52
Front de Libération Nationale (FLN),
47
Gathering Strength
(Canada),
121–23
,
124–26
The
German Ideology
(Marx and Engels),
65
Gines, Katherine,
132
Glenbow Museum,
117
God is Red
(Deloria),
60
Goose Bay, Labrador,
117
Government of the Northwest Territories (GNWT),
55
,
66
,
70
,
71
,
72
Gramsci, Antonio,
113
Grassy Narrows, Ontario,
169
Great Bear Lake,
54
Great Slave Lake,
54
Green, Joyce,
88
Grendzier, Irene,
132
Grossberg, B. W. (Judge),
85
,
86
grounded normativity,
13
,
53
,
60–64
,
172
Gustafsen Lake, British Columbia,
188n59
Haida Gwaii,
167
Harper, Stephen: apology for residential schools,
105
,
125
; Chief Theresa Spence and,
160
,
163
; claim that Canada has “no history of colonialism,”
106
; error in treatment of “Indian Problem,”
173
; on First Nations protests,
167
; on the nonnegotiability of Bill C-45,
165