The Crusades: The Authoritative History of the War for the Holy Land (80 page)

Albert of Aachen, pp. 138–40. The quotation has been abridged.
Gesta Francorum
, p. 23.

T. S. Asbridge,
The Creation of the Principality of Antioch 1098–1130
(Woodbridge, 2000), pp. 16–19; France,
Victory in the East
, pp. 190–96; Albert of Aachen, p. 170.

I myself espoused this assumption in 2004. Asbridge,
The First Crusade
, pp. 153–7.

Hagenmeyer,
Kreuzzugsbriefe
, p. 150; Raymond of Aguilers, pp. 47–8.

Gesta Francorum
, p. 42; Fulcher of Chartres, p. 221; Albert of Aachen, pp. 208–10, 236–8; Hagenmeyer,
Kreuzzugsbriefe
, p. 150; Matthew of Edessa, pp. 167–8.

Fulcher of Chartres, pp. 224–6; Asbridge,
The First Crusade
, pp. 169–96. On the debate regarding Taticius’ departure see: Lilie,
Byzantium and the Crusader States
, pp. 33–7; J. France, ‘The departure of Tatikios from the army of the First Crusade’,
Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research
, vol. 44 (1971), pp. 131–47; France,
Victory in the East
, p. 243. On the first siege of Antioch see also: R. Rogers,
Latin Siege Warfare in the Twelfth Century
(Oxford, 1992), pp. 25–38.

Hagenmeyer,
Kreuzzugsbriefe
, p. 151; Raymond of Aguilers, p. 58. On the First Crusaders’ relations with Near Eastern Muslims see: M. A. Köhler,
Allianzen und Verträge zwischen frankischen und islamischen Herrschern in Vorderren Orient
(Berlin, 1991), pp. 1–72; T. Asbridge, ‘Knowing the enemy: Latin relations with Islam at the time of the First Crusade’,
Knighthoods of Christ
, ed. N. Housley (Aldershot, 2007), pp. 17–25; Albert of Aachen, p. 268.

Fulcher of Chartres, p. 233; Albert of Aachen, pp. 282–4;
Gesta Francorum
, p. 48.

Gesta Francorum
, p. 48; Peter Tudebode, p. 97; Albert of Aachen, pp. 298–300. This quotation has been abridged.

Raymond of Aguilers, p. 75;
Gesta Francorum
, pp. 65–6.

T. Asbridge, ‘The Holy Lance of Antioch: Power, devotion and memory on the First Crusade’,
Reading Medieval Studies
, vol. 33 (2007), pp. 3–36.

Matthew of Edessa, p. 171; Ibn al-Athir, vol. 1, p. 16; Albert of Aachen, p. 320.

Ibn al-Qalanisi, p. 46. On the Battle of Antioch see: France,
Victory in the East
, pp. 280–96; Asbridge,
The First Crusade
, pp. 232–40.

Raymond of Aguilers, p. 75; C. Morris, ‘Policy and vision: The case of the Holy Lance found at Antioch’,
War and Government in the Middle Ages: Essays in honour of J. O. Prestwich
, ed. J. Gillingham and J. C. Holt (Woodbridge, 1984), pp. 33–45.

Fulcher of Chartres, pp. 266–7; Raymond of Aguilers, p. 101; T. Asbridge, ‘The principality of Antioch and the Jabal as-Summaq’,
The First Crusade: Origins and Impact
, ed. J. P. Phillips (Manchester, 1997), pp. 142–52. For alternative readings of these events see: Hill,
Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse
, pp. 85–109; J. France, ‘The crisis of the First Crusade from the defeat of Kerbogha to the departure from Arqa’,
Byzantion
, vol. 40 (1970), pp. 276–308.

Raymond of Aguilers, pp. 120–24, 128–9; Fulcher of Chartres, pp. 238–41.

Albert of Aachen, p. 402.

Fulcher of Chartres, pp. 281–92. On medieval Jerusalem see: A. J. Boas,
Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades
(London, 2001); J. Prawer, ‘The Jerusalem the crusaders captured: A contribution to the medieval topography of the city’,
Crusade and Settlement
, ed. P. W. Edbury (Cardiff, 1985), pp. 1–16; France,
Victory in the East
, pp. 333–5, 337–43.

Raymond of Aguilers, pp. 139–41; Albert of Aachen, pp. 410–12. On the siege of Jerusalem see: France,
Victory in the East
, pp. 332–55; Rogers,
Latin Siege Warfare
, pp. 47–63; Asbridge,
The First Crusade
, pp. 298–316.

Raymond of Aguilers, pp. 141–2; Albert of Aachen, p. 422.

Raymond of Aguilers, pp. 146–8; Albert of Aachen, p. 416.

Raymond of Aguilers, pp. 148–9; Fulcher of Chartres, pp. 296–9.

Raymond of Aguilers, p. 150;
Gesta Francorum
, p. 91; Robert the Monk, p. 868.

Ibn al-Athir, pp. 21–2; Fulcher of Chartres, pp. 304–5; B. Z. Kedar, ‘The Jerusalem massacre of 1099 in the western historiography of the crusades’,
Crusades
, vol. 3 (2004), pp. 15–75.

Historians continue to debate the precise nature of Godfrey’s title. He may well also have employed the appellation ‘prince’, but it is relatively certain that he did not style himself as ‘king of Jerusalem’. On this debate see: J. S. C. Riley-Smith, ‘The title of Godfrey of Bouillon’,
Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research
, vol. 52 (1979), pp. 83–6; J. France, ‘The election and title of Godfrey de Bouillon’,
Canadian Journal of History
, vol. 18 (1983), pp. 321–9; A. V. Murray,
The Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem: A Dynastic History 1099–1125
(Oxford, 2000), pp. 63–77.

Peter Tudebode, pp. 146–7; France,
Victory in the East
, pp. 360–65; Asbridge,
The First Crusade
, pp. 323–7.

On the 1101 crusade see: Riley-Smith,
The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading
, pp. 120–34; J. L. Cate, ‘The crusade of 1101’,
A History of the Crusades
, ed. K. M. Setton, vol. 1, 2nd edn (Madison, 1969), pp. 343–67; A. Mullinder, ‘The Crusading Expeditions of 1101–2’ (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Wales, Swansea, 1996).

On the evolving debate surrounding the centrality of the
Gesta Francorum
as a source for the First Crusade and on the identity of its author see: A. C. Krey, ‘A neglected passage in the
Gesta
and its bearing on the literature of the First Crusade’,
The Crusades and Other Historical Essays presented to Dana C. Munro by his former students
, ed. L. J. Paetow (New York, 1928), pp. 57–78; K. B. Wolf, ‘Crusade and narrative: Bohemond and the
Gesta Francorum
’,
Journal of Medieval History
, vol. 17 (1991), pp. 207–16; C. Morris, ‘The
Gesta Francorum
as narrative history’,
Reading Medieval Studies
, vol. 19 (1993), pp. 55–71; J. France, ‘The Anonymous
Gesta Francorum
and the
Historia Francorum qui ceperunt Iherusalem
of Raymond of Aguilers and the
Historia de Hierosolymitano Itinere
of Peter Tudebode’,
The Crusades and Their Sources: Essays Presented to Bernard Hamilton
, ed. J. France and W. G. Zajac (Aldershot, 1998), pp. 39–69; J. France, ‘The use of the anonymous
Gesta Francorum
in the early twelfth-century sources for the First Crusade’,
From Clermont to Jerusalem: The Crusades and Crusader Societies, 1095–1500
, ed. A. V. Murray (Turnhout, 1998), pp. 29–42; J. Rubenstein, ‘What is the
Gesta Francorum
and who was Peter Tudebode?’,
Revue Mabillon
, vol. 16 (2005), pp. 179–204.

Kedar, ‘The Jerusalem massacre of 1099’, pp. 16–30;
La Chanson d’Antioche
, ed. S. Duparc-Quioc, 2 vols (Paris, 1982);
The Canso d’Antioca: An Occitan Epic Chronicle of the First Crusade
, trans. C. Sweetenham and L. Paterson (Aldershot, 2003). For a discussion of Robert the Monk’s account see: C. Sweetenham,
Robert the Monk’s History of the First Crusade
(Aldershot, 2005), pp. 1–71. On the role of memory see: Asbridge, ‘The Holy Lance of Antioch’, pp. 20–26; S. B. Edgington, ‘Holy Land, Holy Lance: religious ideas in the Chanson d’Antioche’,
The Holy Land, Holy Lands and Christian History
,
Studies in Church History
, ed. R. N. Swanson, vol. 36 (Woodbridge, 2000), pp. 142–53; S. B. Edgington, ‘Romance and reality in the sources for the sieges of Antioch, 1097–1098’,
Porphyrogenita
, ed. C. Dendrinos, J. Harris, E. Harvalia-Crook and J. Herrin (Aldershot, 2003), pp. 33–46; Y. Katzir, ‘The conquests of Jerusalem, 1099 and 1187: Historical memory and religious typology’,
The Meeting of Two Worlds: Cultural Exchange between East and West in the Period of the Crusades
, ed. V. P. Goss (Kalamazoo, 1986) pp. 103–13; J. M. Powell, ‘Myth, legend, propaganda, history: The First Crusade, 1140–c. 1300’,
Autour de la Première Croisade
, ed. M. Balard (Paris, 1996), pp. 127–41.

Ibn al-Qalanisi, pp. 44, 48; Ibn al-Athir, pp. 21–2; al-Azimi, pp. 372–3; C. Hillenbrand, ‘The First Crusade: The Muslim perspective’,
The First Crusade: Origins and Impact
, ed. J. P. Phillips (Manchester, 1997), pp. 130–41; Hillenbrand,
The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives
, pp. 50–68.

Hillenbrand,
The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives
, pp. 68–74; J. Drory, ‘Early Muslim reflections on the Crusaders’,
Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam
, vol. 25 (2001), pp. 92–101; D. Ephrat and M. D. Kahba, ‘Muslim reaction to the Frankish presence in Bilad al-Sham: intensifying religious fidelity within the masses’,
Al-Masaq
, vol. 15 (2003), pp. 47–58; W. J. Hamblin, ‘To wage
jihad
or not: Fatimid Egypt during the early crusades’,
The Jihad and its Times
, ed. H. Dajani-Shakeel and R. A. Mossier (Ann Arbor, 1991), pp. 31–40. Al-Sulami was particularly unusual, because he identified accurately that the Franks were waging a holy war targeting Jerusalem. He also considered the crusade to be part of a wider Christian offensive against Islam that included conflicts in Iberia and Sicily. E. Sivan, ‘La genèse de la contre-croisade: un traité Damasquin du début du XIIe siècle’,
Journal Asiatique
, vol. 254 (1966), pp. 197–224; N. Christie, ‘Jerusalem in the
Kitab al-Jihad
of Ali ibn Tahir al-Sulami’,
Medieval Encounters
, vol. 13. 2 (2007), pp. 209–21; N. Christie and D. Gerish, ‘Parallel preaching: Urban II and al-Sulami’,
Al-Masaq
, vol. 15 (2003), pp. 139–48.

The term ‘crusader states’ is somewhat misleading, as it gives the impression that these settlements were exclusively populated by crusaders and that their history might be interpreted as an example of ongoing crusading activity. The vast majority of the surviving First Crusaders returned to the West in 1099, leaving Outremer to face perpetual manpower shortages and to rely upon the influx of new settlers, most of whom had not formally taken the cross. The issue of the continued influence of crusading ideology over the history of the Latin East is a more vexed question. J. S. C. Riley-Smith, ‘Peace never established: the Case of the Kingdom of Jerusalem’,
Transactions of the Royal Historical Society
, 5th series, vol. 28 (1978), pp. 87–102.

For an overview of the history of the crusader states in the first half of the twelfth century see: Mayer,
The Crusades,
pp. 58–92; Richard,
The Crusades,
pp. 77–169; Jotischky,
Crusading and the Crusader States
, pp. 62–102. For a detailed and lively (if not always entirely reliable) account of this period see: S. Runciman, ‘The kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East 1100–1187’,
A History of the Crusades
, vol. 2 (Cambridge, 1952). For more detailed regional studies see: J. Prawer,
Histoire du Royaume Latin de Jérusalem
, 2nd edn, 2 vols (Paris, 1975); J. Richard,
The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem
, trans. J. Shirley, 2 vols (Oxford, 1979); A. Murray,
The Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem: A Dynastic History 1099–1125
(Oxford, 2000); C. Cahen,
La Syrie du Nord à l’époque des Croisades et la principauté Franque d’Antioche
(Paris, 1940); T. Asbridge,
The Creation of the Principality of Antioch
(Woodbridge, 2000); J. Richard,
La comté de Tripoli sous la dynastie toulousaine (1102–1187)
(Paris, 1945); M. Amouroux-Mourad,
Le comté d’Édesse, 1098–1150
(Paris, 1988); C. MacEvitt,
The Crusades and the Christian World of the East
(Philadelphia, 2008). The main chronicle and narrative primary sources for Outremer’s early history are: Fulcher of Chartres,
Historia Hierosolymitana (1095–1127)
, ed. H. Hagenmeyer (Heidelberg, 1913); Albert of Aachen,
Historia Iherosolimitana
, ed. and trans. S. B. Edgington (Oxford, 2007); Walter the Chancellor,
Bella Antiochena
, ed. H. Hagenmeyer (Innsbruck, 1896); Orderic Vitalis,
The Ecclesiastical History of Orderic Vitalis
, ed. and trans. M. Chibnall, vols 5 and 6 (Oxford, 1975); William of Tyre,
Chronicon
, ed. R. B. C. Huygens,
Corpus Christianorum, Continuatio Mediaevalis
, 63–63A, 2 vols (Turnhout, 1986); Ibn al-Qalanisi,
The Damascus Chronicle of the Crusades, extracted and translated from the Chronicle of Ibn al-Qalanisi
, trans. H. A. R. Gibb (London, 1932); Ibn al-Athir,
The Chronicle of Ibn al-Athir. Part 1
, trans. D. S. Richards (Aldershot, 2006); Kemal ad-Din,
La Chronique d’Alep
,
RHC Or
. III, pp. 577–732; Anna Comnena,
Alexiade
, ed. and trans. B. Leib, vol. 3 (Paris, 1976); John Kinnamos,
The Deeds of John and Manuel Comnenus
, trans. C. M. Brand (New York, 1976); Matthew of Edessa,
Armenia and the Crusades, Tenth to Twelfth Centuries: The Chronicle of Matthew of Edessa
, trans. A. E. Dostourian (Lanham, 1993); Michael the Syrian,
Chronique de Michel le Syrien, patriarche jacobite d’Antioche (1166–1199)
, ed. and trans. J. B. Chabot, 4 vols (Paris, 1899–1910); Anonymous Syriac Chronicle, ‘The First and Second Crusades from an Anonymous Syriac Chronicle’, ed. and trans. A. S. Tritton and H. A. R. Gibb,
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society
, vol. 92 (1933), pp. 69–102, 273–306.