Read The Great Arab Conquests Online
Authors: Hugh Kennedy
The Great Arab Conquests (71 page)
33
Butler,
Arab Conquest
, p.
2
28.
Butler,
Arab Conquest
, p.
2
28.
34
John of Nikiu,
Chronicle
, p. 181; Ibn Abd al-Hakam,
Futūh
, p. 59; Butler,
Arab Conquest
, pp. 228-33.
John of Nikiu,
Chronicle
, p. 181; Ibn Abd al-Hakam,
Futūh
, p. 59; Butler,
Arab Conquest
, pp. 228-33.
35
See Butler,
Arab Conquest
, pp. 238-48, with a plan at p. 240; Kubiak,
Al-Fustat
, pp. 50-55.
See Butler,
Arab Conquest
, pp. 238-48, with a plan at p. 240; Kubiak,
Al-Fustat
, pp. 50-55.
36
John of Nikiu,
Chronicle
, pp. 186-7.
John of Nikiu,
Chronicle
, pp. 186-7.
37
Ibn Abd al-Hakam,
Futūh
, p. 63; see Butler,
Arab Conquest
, p. 259 n. 1, in which he discusses other, later variants of this story and the ‘invincible confusion’ of the Arabic sources. See also Butler, ‘Treaty of Misr’ (published with separate pagination (1-64) and index at the end of Butler,
Arab Conquest
), pp. 16-19.
Ibn Abd al-Hakam,
Futūh
, p. 63; see Butler,
Arab Conquest
, p. 259 n. 1, in which he discusses other, later variants of this story and the ‘invincible confusion’ of the Arabic sources. See also Butler, ‘Treaty of Misr’ (published with separate pagination (1-64) and index at the end of Butler,
Arab Conquest
), pp. 16-19.
38
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 213.
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 213.
39
Yāqūt, ‘Fustāt’, Butler,
Arab Conquest
, p. 270, n. 3.
Yāqūt, ‘Fustāt’, Butler,
Arab Conquest
, p. 270, n. 3.
40
John of Nikiu,
Chronicle
, pp. 186-7.
John of Nikiu,
Chronicle
, pp. 186-7.
41
The text is given Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 2588-9: it is discussed in Butler, ‘Treaty of Misr’.
The text is given Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 2588-9: it is discussed in Butler, ‘Treaty of Misr’.
42
Butler ‘Treaty of Misr’, pp. 46-7.
Butler ‘Treaty of Misr’, pp. 46-7.
43
D. R. Hill,
The Termination of Hostilities in the Early Arab Conquests AD 634-656
(London, 1971), pp. 34-44.
D. R. Hill,
The Termination of Hostilities in the Early Arab Conquests AD 634-656
(London, 1971), pp. 34-44.
44
Balādhurī
Futūh
, pp. 214-15.
Balādhurī
Futūh
, pp. 214-15.
45
Yāqūt, ‘Fustāt’.
Yāqūt, ‘Fustāt’.
46
Ibn Abd al-Hakam,
Futūh
, p. 73.
Ibn Abd al-Hakam,
Futūh
, p. 73.
47
John of Nikiu,
Chronicle
, p. 188; Ibn Abd al-Hakam,
Futūh
; Butler,
Arab Conquest
, pp. 286-7.
John of Nikiu,
Chronicle
, p. 188; Ibn Abd al-Hakam,
Futūh
; Butler,
Arab Conquest
, pp. 286-7.
48
Balādhurī,
Futūh, p. 2
20.
Balādhurī,
Futūh, p. 2
20.
49
Ibn Abd al-Hakam,
Futūh
, p. 74.
Ibn Abd al-Hakam,
Futūh
, p. 74.
50
Butler,
Arab Conquest
, pp. 291-2, and the description of the city based largely on Arabic sources in ibid., pp. 368-400.
Butler,
Arab Conquest
, pp. 291-2, and the description of the city based largely on Arabic sources in ibid., pp. 368-400.
51
The free use of ‘Palestine’ to describe all of greater Syria is typical of late nineteenth-century scholarship, e.g. G. Le Strange,
Palestine under the Moslems: A description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650 to 1500
(London, 1890).
The free use of ‘Palestine’ to describe all of greater Syria is typical of late nineteenth-century scholarship, e.g. G. Le Strange,
Palestine under the Moslems: A description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650 to 1500
(London, 1890).
52
As Butler notes, ‘these obelisks it was reserved for British and American vandalism to remove from Egypt: one is now on the Thames embankment, one in New York ... their height, about 68 feet, would enable at least their tops to be seen from some little distance without the walls’.
As Butler notes, ‘these obelisks it was reserved for British and American vandalism to remove from Egypt: one is now on the Thames embankment, one in New York ... their height, about 68 feet, would enable at least their tops to be seen from some little distance without the walls’.
53
M. Rodziewicz, ‘Transformation of Ancient Alexandria into a Medieval City’, in
Colloque international d’archéologie islamique
, ed. R-P. Gayraud (Cairo, 1998), pp. 368-86.
M. Rodziewicz, ‘Transformation of Ancient Alexandria into a Medieval City’, in
Colloque international d’archéologie islamique
, ed. R-P. Gayraud (Cairo, 1998), pp. 368-86.
54
John of Nikiu,
Chronicle
, pp. 192-3.
John of Nikiu,
Chronicle
, pp. 192-3.
55
See Hoyland’s reconstruction of the ‘common core’ of the Syrian chronicle tradition in
Seeing Islam
, pp. 577-8.
See Hoyland’s reconstruction of the ‘common core’ of the Syrian chronicle tradition in
Seeing Islam
, pp. 577-8.
56
Kubiak,
Al-Fustt
, p. 71.
Kubiak,
Al-Fustt
, p. 71.
57
R.-P. Gayraud, ‘Fostat: évolution d’une capitale arabe du VII au XII siècle d’après les fouilles d’Istabl
c
Antar’, in
Colloque international d’archéologie islamique
, ed. R.-P. Gayraud (Cairo, 1998), pp. 436-60.
R.-P. Gayraud, ‘Fostat: évolution d’une capitale arabe du VII au XII siècle d’après les fouilles d’Istabl
c
Antar’, in
Colloque international d’archéologie islamique
, ed. R.-P. Gayraud (Cairo, 1998), pp. 436-60.
58
Ibn Abd al-Hakam,
Futūh
, p. 102.
Ibn Abd al-Hakam,
Futūh
, p. 102.
59
I have estimated on the basis of the proposition that many of the men would have been single and married local women, but of course all these figures are very speculative.
I have estimated on the basis of the proposition that many of the men would have been single and married local women, but of course all these figures are very speculative.
60
Butler,
Arab Conquest
, p. 361.
Butler,
Arab Conquest
, p. 361.
61
Ibid., pp. 439-446, discusses the restoration of Benjamin.
Ibid., pp. 439-446, discusses the restoration of Benjamin.
62
Sawīrus, ‘Life of Benjamin,’ p. 500.
Sawīrus, ‘Life of Benjamin,’ p. 500.
63
Ibid., pp. 496-7.
Ibid., pp. 496-7.
64
Ibn Abd al-Hakam,
Futūh
, pp. 180-82.
Ibn Abd al-Hakam,
Futūh
, pp. 180-82.
65
John of Nikiu,
Chronicle
, p. 200.
John of Nikiu,
Chronicle
, p. 200.
66
Three million is the conservative estimate given by Kaegi, ‘Egypt on the eve’, p. 34: 100,000 is an extrapolation of the figure of 40,000 men given by Ibn Abd al-Hakam,
Futūh
, p. 102, as the maximum number in the
dīwn
in early Umayyad times (see above, pp. 141, 162).
Three million is the conservative estimate given by Kaegi, ‘Egypt on the eve’, p. 34: 100,000 is an extrapolation of the figure of 40,000 men given by Ibn Abd al-Hakam,
Futūh
, p. 102, as the maximum number in the
dīwn
in early Umayyad times (see above, pp. 141, 162).
67
Butler,
Arab Conquest
, pp. 305-7.
Butler,
Arab Conquest
, pp. 305-7.
68
Ibid., p. 534.
Ibid., p. 534.
69
John of Nikiu,
Chronicle
, p. 182.
John of Nikiu,
Chronicle
, p. 182.
70
Ibid., p. 184.
Ibid., p. 184.
5. THE CONQUEST OF IRAN
1
For a general account of the fall of the Sasanian Empire and the Muslim conquest of Iran, see A. Christensen,
L’Iran sous les Sassanides
(rev. 2nd edn, Copenhagen, 1944), pp. 497-509.
For a general account of the fall of the Sasanian Empire and the Muslim conquest of Iran, see A. Christensen,
L’Iran sous les Sassanides
(rev. 2nd edn, Copenhagen, 1944), pp. 497-509.
2
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 2596-633; Balādhurī,
Futūh
, pp. 302-7; Ibn A
c
tham al-Kūfī,
Kitb al-Futūh
, ed. S. A Bukhari, 7 vols. (Hyderabad, 1974), II, pp. 31-59. On the sources, see A. Noth, ‘Isfahan-Nihāwand. Eine quellenkritische Studie zur frühislamischen Historiographie’,
Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft
118 (1968): 274-96.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 2596-633; Balādhurī,
Futūh
, pp. 302-7; Ibn A
c
tham al-Kūfī,
Kitb al-Futūh
, ed. S. A Bukhari, 7 vols. (Hyderabad, 1974), II, pp. 31-59. On the sources, see A. Noth, ‘Isfahan-Nihāwand. Eine quellenkritische Studie zur frühislamischen Historiographie’,
Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft
118 (1968): 274-96.
3
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2616.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2616.
4
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2618.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2618.
5
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2617.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2617.
6
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2632.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2632.
7
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 303.
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 303.
8
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 2623-4.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 2623-4.
9
Tabarī,
Ta’rikh
, I, p. 2626.
Tabarī,
Ta’rikh
, I, p. 2626.
10
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, pp. 2627, 2649-50.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, pp. 2627, 2649-50.
11
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 305.
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 305.
12
For the conquest of Hamadan, see Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 309.
For the conquest of Hamadan, see Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 309.
13
S. Matheson,
Persia: An Archaeological Guide
(2nd rev. edn, London, 1976), p. 109.
S. Matheson,
Persia: An Archaeological Guide
(2nd rev. edn, London, 1976), p. 109.
14
For the conquest of Isfahan, see Balādhurī,
Futūh
, pp. 312-14.
For the conquest of Isfahan, see Balādhurī,
Futūh
, pp. 312-14.
15
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2642.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2642.
16
Abu Nu
c
aym al-Isfahānī,
Geschicte Isbahans
, pp. 15-16.
Abu Nu
c
aym al-Isfahānī,
Geschicte Isbahans
, pp. 15-16.
17
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 2639-41.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 2639-41.
18
P. Pourshariati, ‘Local histories of Khurasan and the pattern of Arab settlement’,
Studia Iranica
27 (1998): 62-3.
P. Pourshariati, ‘Local histories of Khurasan and the pattern of Arab settlement’,
Studia Iranica
27 (1998): 62-3.
19
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 2650-711. See ‘Bahrām VI Cobin’ in
Encyclopaedia Iranica
, ed. E. Yarshater (London, 1985-), III, pp. 519-22.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 2650-711. See ‘Bahrām VI Cobin’ in
Encyclopaedia Iranica
, ed. E. Yarshater (London, 1985-), III, pp. 519-22.
20
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 2653-5.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 2653-5.
21
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2659.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2659.
22
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2635.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2635.
23
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2667.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 2667.
24
This account is based on the meticulous work of G. M. Hinds, ‘The first Arab conquests in Fars’,
Iran
22 (1984): 39-53, reprinted in
idem
,
Studies in Early Islamic History
, ed. J. L. Bacharach, L. I. Conrad and P. Crone (Princeton, NJ, 1996).
This account is based on the meticulous work of G. M. Hinds, ‘The first Arab conquests in Fars’,
Iran
22 (1984): 39-53, reprinted in
idem
,
Studies in Early Islamic History
, ed. J. L. Bacharach, L. I. Conrad and P. Crone (Princeton, NJ, 1996).
25
Al-Istakhrī,
Kitb Maslik wa’l-Mamlik
, ed. M. J. de Goeje (Leiden, 1927).
Al-Istakhrī,
Kitb Maslik wa’l-Mamlik
, ed. M. J. de Goeje (Leiden, 1927).
26
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 388.
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 388.
27
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 389.
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 389.
28
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 389.
Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 389.
29
Balādhuri,
Ansab al-Ashraf
, I, ed. M. Hamidullah (Cairo, 1959), p. 494.
Balādhuri,
Ansab al-Ashraf
, I, ed. M. Hamidullah (Cairo, 1959), p. 494.
30
For the initial conquest of Sistan, see Balādhurī,
Futūh
, pp. 293-4.
For the initial conquest of Sistan, see Balādhurī,
Futūh
, pp. 293-4.
31
For discussion, see Christensen,
Iran
, pp. 506-9.
For discussion, see Christensen,
Iran
, pp. 506-9.
32
Bal
c
ami, quoted by Christensen,
Iran
, p. 507.
Bal
c
ami, quoted by Christensen,
Iran
, p. 507.
33
For Arabic accounts, see Balādhurī,
Futūh
, pp. 315-16.
For Arabic accounts, see Balādhurī,
Futūh
, pp. 315-16.
34
My account is based on Firdawsi,
Shahnāmah
, trans. D. Davis, vol. III:
Sunset of Empire
(Washington, DC, 1998-2004), pp. 501-13.
My account is based on Firdawsi,
Shahnāmah
, trans. D. Davis, vol. III:
Sunset of Empire
(Washington, DC, 1998-2004), pp. 501-13.
35
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 1322.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 1322.
36
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 1318.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 1318.
37
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 1320; Balādhurī,
Futūh
, pp. 335-6. 38. Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 335.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 1320; Balādhurī,
Futūh
, pp. 335-6. 38. Balādhurī,
Futūh
, p. 335.
39
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 1320-22, 1328.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 1320-22, 1328.
40
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 1328.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, p. 1328.
41
Ta’rīkh Jurjan
, pp. 56-7; see also P. Pourshariati, ‘Local histories of Khurasan and the pattern of Arab settlement’,
Studia Iranica
27 (1998): 41-81.
Ta’rīkh Jurjan
, pp. 56-7; see also P. Pourshariati, ‘Local histories of Khurasan and the pattern of Arab settlement’,
Studia Iranica
27 (1998): 41-81.
42
On the Islamization of Gurgān, see R. Bulliet,
Islam: The View from the Edge
(New York, 1994).
On the Islamization of Gurgān, see R. Bulliet,
Islam: The View from the Edge
(New York, 1994).
43
For this campaign, see C. E. Bosworth, ‘Ubaidallah b. Abi Bakra and the “Army of Destruction” in Zabulistan (79/698)’,
Der Islam 1
(1973): 268-83.
For this campaign, see C. E. Bosworth, ‘Ubaidallah b. Abi Bakra and the “Army of Destruction” in Zabulistan (79/698)’,
Der Islam 1
(1973): 268-83.
44
Balādhurī,
Ansb al-Ashrf
, ed. Ahlwardt, p. 314.
Balādhurī,
Ansb al-Ashrf
, ed. Ahlwardt, p. 314.
45
Balādhurī,
Ansab
, p. 315-16. The translation is based on that of Bosworth, slightly simplified.
Balādhurī,
Ansab
, p. 315-16. The translation is based on that of Bosworth, slightly simplified.
46
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 1038-9.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 1038-9.
47
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 1043-7.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 1043-7.
48
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 1054-5.
Tabarī,
Ta’rīkh
, I, pp. 1054-5.
6. INTO THE MAGHREB
1
The secondary literature on the conquest of North Africa is not extensive. For a narrative account based on a careful reading of the meagre Arabic literary source, see A. D. Taha,
The Muslim Conquest and Settlement of North Africa and Spain
(London, 1989). V. Christides,
Byzantine Libya and the March of the Arabs towards the West of North Africa
, British Archaeological Reports, International Series 851 (Oxford, 2000), is also based on the Arabic texts but provides some additional material from hagiographical and archaeological sources.
The secondary literature on the conquest of North Africa is not extensive. For a narrative account based on a careful reading of the meagre Arabic literary source, see A. D. Taha,
The Muslim Conquest and Settlement of North Africa and Spain
(London, 1989). V. Christides,
Byzantine Libya and the March of the Arabs towards the West of North Africa
, British Archaeological Reports, International Series 851 (Oxford, 2000), is also based on the Arabic texts but provides some additional material from hagiographical and archaeological sources.
2
Muqaddasī,
Ahsan al-Taqsim: The Best Divisions for Knowledge of the Regions
, trans. B. Collins (Reading, 2001), p. 224.
Muqaddasī,
Ahsan al-Taqsim: The Best Divisions for Knowledge of the Regions
, trans. B. Collins (Reading, 2001), p. 224.
3
See A. Cameron, ‘Byzantine Africa - the literary evidence’, in
Excavations at Carthage 1975-1978
, ed. J.H. Humphrey, vol. VII (Ann Arbor, MI, 1977-78), pp. 29-62, reprinted in
eadem
,
Changing Cultures in Early Byzantium
(Aldershot, 1996), VII.
See A. Cameron, ‘Byzantine Africa - the literary evidence’, in
Excavations at Carthage 1975-1978
, ed. J.H. Humphrey, vol. VII (Ann Arbor, MI, 1977-78), pp. 29-62, reprinted in
eadem
,
Changing Cultures in Early Byzantium
(Aldershot, 1996), VII.
4
M. Brett and E. Fentress,
The Berbers
(Oxford, 1996), pp. 79-80, quoting Procopius,
Bellum Vandalicum
IV, xiii, pp. 22-8.
M. Brett and E. Fentress,
The Berbers
(Oxford, 1996), pp. 79-80, quoting Procopius,
Bellum Vandalicum
IV, xiii, pp. 22-8.
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