Voices of Islam (47 page)

During the period of Umayyad rule (661–750
CE
), different Shiite groups, consisting of both Arab Muslims and new non-Arab converts, sought to sup- port different candidates for the Imamate. The leadership of the Shi‘a grew beyond the immediate family of the Prophet Muhammad and now included other branches of the Banu Hashim, the Prophet’s extended family, includ- ing the descendants of the Prophet’s uncles Abu Talib and ‘Abbas. This was because the notion of the Prophet’s family was then conceived broadly, in its old Arabian tribal sense. As the Muslim world continued to expand geo- graphically and more people from the conquered territories became part of the growing
Umma,
the various Muslim groups, including the Shi‘a, attracted new adherents.

A large group of the Shi‘a, known as the
Imamiyya
(Imamis), adopted a quietist policy in the political field while concentrating on Islam’s intellectual promotion and development. Their Imams traced authority through Imam

What Is Shiite Islam?
221

Husayn’s sole surviving son, ‘Ali Zayn al-‘Abidin (‘‘Ornament of the Wor- shippers,’’ d. 712
CE
), who was held in great esteem in the pious circles of Medina. It was after ‘Ali Zayn al-‘Abidin that the Imami Shi‘a began to gain importance under his son and successor Muhammad al-Baqir (d. 731
CE
). A small group chose to support Zayd, another son of Zayn al-‘Abidin, and organized themselves to actively oppose Umayyad rule. This group and their followers later became known as the
Zaydiyya
(Zaydis).

Imam al-Baqir concentrated on being an active teacher during his Imamate of nearly 20 years. He also introduced the principle of
taqiyya,
the precau- tionary dissimulation of one’s true religious belief and practice that was to protect the Imams and their followers under adverse circumstances. His Imamate coincided with the growth and development of Islamic jurispru- dence (
fiqh
). In this formative period of Islam, Imam al-Baqir’s role was pri- marily as a reporter of Hadith and a teacher of law. Upon his death, his followers recognized his eldest son Abu ‘Abdallah Ja‘far (d. 765
CE
), later called al-Sadiq (the Trustworthy), as their new Imam.

In addition to the Zaydis, other proponents of the Shiite position—notably the Abbasids, descendants of the Prophet’s uncle ‘Abbas—embarked on a direct challenge to Umayyad rule. The Abbasids paid particular attention to developing the political organization of their own movement, establishing secret headquarters in Kufa but concentrating their activities in eastern Iran and Central Asia. The Abbasid mission (
da‘wa
) was preached in the name of an unidentifi person belonging to the Prophet’s family. This ideology aimed to maximize support from the Shi‘a of different groups who supported the leadership of the Ahl al-Bayt. In 749
CE
, the Abbasids achieved victory over the Umayyads. They proclaimed Abu’l-‘Abbas al-Saffah (r. 749– 754
CE
) as the first Abbasid Caliph in the mosque of Kufa. The Abbasid victory proved a source of disillusionment for those Shi‘a who had expected a descendant of ‘Ali, rather than an Abbasid, to succeed to the Caliphate. The animosity between the Abbasids and the ‘Alids increased when, soon after their accession, the Abbasids began to persecute many of their former Shiite supporters and ‘Alids and subsequently promoted a Sunni interpretation of Islam. The Abbasids’ breach with their Shiite roots was fi completed when the third Caliph of the dynasty, Muhammad al-Mahdi (r. 775– 785
CE
), declared that the Prophet had actually appointed his uncle ‘Abbas, rather than ‘Ali, as his successor.

Meanwhile, Imam Ja‘far al-Sadiq had acquired a widespread reputation as a teacher and scholar. He was a reporter of Hadith and is cited as such in the chain of authorities (
isnad
) accepted by all Muslim schools of law. He also taught Islamic jurisprudence. He is credited with founding, along with his father, the Imami Shiite school of religious law. This school of law is now called
Ja‘fari
after Ja‘far al-Sadiq. Imam al-Sadiq was accepted as a leading authority not only by his own Shiite partisans but also by a wider circle that included many Sunni Muslims. In time, Imam al-Sadiq acquired a

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noteworthy group of scholars around himself, comprising some of the most eminent jurists, traditionists, and theologians of the time such as Hisham ibn al-Hakam (d. 795
CE
), then the foremost representative of Imami scholastic theology (
kalam
). During Ja‘far’s Imamate, the Shi‘a came to develop distinct positions on theological and legal issues and contributed to the wider debates and discussions within Muslim intellectual circles.

As a result of the activities of Imam al-Sadiq and his associates, and build- ing on the teachings of Imam al-Baqir, the doctrine of the Imamate received its main outline, consolidating principles that were traced back to the teach- ings of the early Imams and the Prophet Muhammad. The first principle was that of
nass,
the transfer of the Imamate by explicit designation. On the basis of
nass,
the Imamate could be located in a specific individual, whether or not the recipient claimed the Caliphate or exercised political authority. This principle established a separation of powers in Shi‘ism, detaching the necessity of political authority from the institution of the Imamate, according to historical circumstances. The second principle was that of an Imamate based on
‘ilm,
special religious knowledge. In the light of this knowledge, which was divinely inspired and transmitted through the
nass
of the preced- ing Imam, the rightful Imam of the time became the source of knowledge and spiritual teaching for his followers.

Rooted in the teachings of the Imams, the doctrine of the Imamate emphasizes the complementarity between revelation and intellectual reflec- tion. It recognizes that the Holy Qur’an addresses different levels of mean- ing: the apparent meaning of the text, the esoteric meaning of the text, the legal parameters that guide human action, and the ethical vision that Allah intends to realize for human beings in an integrated moral society. According to the Shi‘a, the Qur’an thus offers believers the possibility of deriving new insights to address the needs of the time in which Muslims live.

The Shiite doctrine of the Imamate, expressed in numerous
hadiths
reported mainly from Ja‘far al-Sadiq, is preserved in the earliest collection of Shiite traditions, compiled by Abu Ja‘far Muhammad al-Kulayni (d. 940
CE
). This doctrine was founded on the belief in the permanent need for a divinely guided Imam who, after the Prophet Muhammad, would act as an authoritative teacher and a spiritual guide for humankind. While the Imam historically was entitled to both temporal leadership and religious authority, his mandate was independent of temporal power. This doctrine also con- firmed the belief that the Prophet designated Imam ‘Ali as his legatee (
wasi
) and successor, by an explicit
nass
under divine command. After ‘Ali, the Imamate was transmitted from father to son by
nass,
among the descendants of ‘Ali and Fatima; after Husayn, it would continue in the line of Husayn’s descendants until the end of time.

Imam Ja‘far al-Sadiq died in 765
CE
. A conflict soon arose over who should be the next Imam. This dispute over the succession to Imam al-Sadiq resulted in new divisions within the Shi‘a and led to the eventual formation of the two

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223

main Shiite communities, the
Ithna‘ashariyya
or ‘‘Twelvers’’ (also called Imamis), and the
Ismailiyya,
the Ismailis. The Ismailis, who followed Muhammad ibn Isma‘il, a grandson of Ja‘far al-Sadiq, are the second largest Shiite community after the Twelvers. The third branch of the Shi‘a, the Zaydis, had their own separate historical development.

IMAMI OR TWELVER SHI‘ISM

After Imam Ja‘far al-Sadiq’s death, the majority of his followers acknowl- edged one of his surviving sons, Musa al-Kazim (d. 799
CE
), as his successor to the Imamate. Placed under the control of the Abbasid rulers, Imam Musa was constrained in his activities and, according to his followers, was poisoned while being detained by the Abbasid Caliph’s representatives in Baghdad. He was succeeded by his son, ‘Ali al-Rida (d. 818
CE
), who faced similar tribula- tions. After also dying under suspicious circumstances, he was buried in a place that has come to be known as
Mashhad
(Place of Witness), one of the holiest sites in Iran. Imam ‘Ali al-Rida was succeeded by his very young son, Muhammad al-Jawad (d. 835
CE
), also known as al-Taqi (The God- Fearing). Muhammad al-Jawad died in Baghdad at the age of 25 and was buried next to Musa al-Kazim. The next two Imams, ‘Ali al-Hadi (d. 868
CE
) and Hasan al-‘Askari (d. 874
CE
), led very restricted lives under Abbasid detention. Both are believed to have died of poisoning and were buried in the Iraqi city of Samarra. The dome of their tomb in Samarra was destroyed by anti-Shiite insurgents in February 2006. Hasan al-‘Askari’s followers believed that his successor, Muhammad al-Mahdi, was five years old when his father died. It is further held that soon after, Muhammad al-Mahdi went into
ghayba,
literally a state of ‘‘absence’’ or occultation. Eventually, the main body of the Imami Shi‘a held that Muhammad al-Mahdi had been born to Hasan al-Askari in 869
CE
but that the child had remained hidden, even from his father. They further held that al-Mahdi had succeeded his father to the Imamate while remaining in concealment. Identifi as the
Mahdi
(The Guided One) or
al-Qa’im
(The Restorer), Muhammad al-Mahdi is expected to reappear and rule the world with justice in the period immediately preced- ing the final Day of Judgment. Because he is the twelfth in the Imami line of Imams, his followers are called the Ithna‘asharis, the Twelvers.

According to Imami tradition, Muhammad al-Mahdi’s occultation fell into two periods. The first, ‘‘lesser occultation’’ (
al-ghayba al-sughra
) covered the years 874–941
CE
. During this period, the Imam is believed to have remained in regular contact with four successive agents, called variously the Gate (
Bab
), Emissary (
Safir
), or Deputy (
Na’ib
), who acted as intermediaries between the Imam and his community. However, in the ‘‘greater occultation’’ (
al-ghayba al-kubra
), which started in 941
CE
and continues to this day, the hidden Imam does not act through a specifi representative. Imami Shiite scholars

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have written extensively on the eschatological doctrine of the occultation of the twelfth Imam and the conditions that are expected to prevail before his return. These doctrines were institutionalized at the end of the fi half of the tenth century
CE
, after the line of 12 Imams had been identified.

In the first period of their religious history, the Imami Shiites benefi from the direct guidance and teachings of their Imams. In the second period of Imami history, from the occultation of the twelfth Imam until the Mongol invasion in the thirteenth century
CE
, eminent scholars emerged as influential guardians and transmitters of the teachings of the Imams, compiling Hadith collections and formulating the Ja‘fari school of law. This period coincided with the rise of the Buyid, or Buwayhid Sultans (ca. 932–1055
CE
). The Buyids were a military clan of Persian origin who came to power in Iran and Iraq and acted as overlords for the Sunni Abbasid Caliphs. The Buyids were originally Zaydi Shiites from Daylam in northern Iran, but once in power they supported Shi‘ism without allegiance to any of its specific branches. They also supported the rationalist Mu‘tazili school of Islamic theology. It was under their infl that Imami theology developed its rationalistic inclination. The earliest comprehensive collections of Imami traditions, which were first transmitted in Kufa and other parts of Iraq, were compiled in the Iranian city of Qom. By the late ninth century
CE
, when the develop- ment of Imami tradition was well under way, Qom had already served for more than a century as a center for Imami Shiite learning. The earliest and most authoritative of the Imami Hadith collections consist of four canonical compendia that deal with the subjects of theology and jurisprudence.

Shiite influences spread more widely to Iran and Central Asia after the Mongol conquest in the thirteenth century
CE
, creating a more favorable milieu in many formerly Sunni regions. A particularly broadly based Shiite tradition flowered in post-Mongol Central Asia, Iran, and Anatolia that in time would culminate in Safavid Shi‘ism (ca. fi century
CE
). Safavid Shi‘ism has been characterized as ‘‘
Tariqa
Shi‘ism,’’ as it was transmitted mainly through Sufi
tariqa
s or orders that encouraged Shiite doctrines. These Sufi orders remained outwardly Sunni, following one or another of the Sunni schools of law, while being particularly devoted to ‘Ali and the Ahl al-Bayt. Among the Sufi orders that played a leading role in spreading this type of popular Shi‘ism, mention should be made of the Nurbakhshiyya and the Ni‘matullahiyya. In the atmosphere of religious eclecticism that prevailed in Central Asia, ‘Alid loyalism became more widespread, and Shiite elements began to be integrated into the broader practices of Sufi groups. It was under such circumstances that close relations developed between Twelver Shi‘ism and Sufism as well as between Ismailism and Sufism in Iran. The most important Twelver Shiite mystic of the fourteenth century, who developed his own rapport between Imami Shi‘ism and Sufi was Sayyid Haydar Amuli (d. 1385
CE
) who was influenced by the Sufi teachings of the Spanish Muslim mystic Ibn al-‘Arabi (d. 1240
CE
).