Allende’s Chile and the Inter-American Cold War (52 page)

1.
Jara,
Victor
, 155; “Fiesta Popular,”
El Mercurio
, 3 November 1970; and “Dijo Allende en el Estadio Nacional: Chile Forja su Propio Destino,”
El Mercurio
, 6 November 1970.

2.
Memorandum of Conversation (USSR), Kissinger and Dobrynin, 13 April 1972, in Geyer and Selvage,
Soviet-American Relations
, 661–62.

3.
Memorandum, General Vernon Walters to Henry Kissinger, 3 November 1970, enclosure, Memorandum, Kissinger to Nixon, 5 November 1970, box H029/NSCIF/NPMP. When it comes to Chile’s exclusion from the benefits of détente, and Latin America’s position within the bipolar détente process, it is telling to note that neither Chile, Allende, nor Latin America came up once in secret U.S.-Soviet negotiations between 1969 and 1972. See Geyer and Selvage,
Soviet-American Relations
.

4.
Memorandum of Conversation, the President et al., the Cabinet Room, 9:40 a.m., 6 November 1970, in Kornbluh,
Pinochet File
, 116–20.

5.
Dinges,
Condor Years
, 41.

6.
Charles Meyer as cited in Memorandum, Armando Uribe, “Estada en Chile del Jefe de la Delegacion Especial de EEUU a la Transmisión de Mando, Secretario Charles Meyer,” 6 November 1970, MINREL 1961–1979/Memorandos Políticos/AMRE.

7.
Brands,
Latin America’s Cold War
, 7.

8.
Bethell and Roxborough, “The Impact of the Cold War on Latin America,” 431.

9.
On the issue of a crisis-driven approach, see Grandin, “Off the Beach.”

10.
McAllister, “Rural Markets, Revolutionary Souls, and Rebellious Women,” 350.

11.
For the most recent publications on U.S. intervention in Chile, see Gustafson,
Hostile Intent
; Haslam,
Assisted Suicide
; and Kornbluh,
Pinochet File
. Before the recent declassification of documents on the subject, some of the most comprehensive accounts of the Allende years were Davis,
Last Two Years
; Kaufman,
Crisis in Allende’s Chile
; and Sigmund,
Overthrow of Allende
. On Kissinger’s “criminality” in subverting democracy, see Hitchens,
Trial of Henry Kissinger
. On consensus, see Maxwell and Rogers, “Fleeing the Chilean Coup,” and Fermandois, “Pawn or Player?”

12.
Kornbluh,
Pinochet File
, and Maxwell and Rogers, “Fleeing the Chilean Coup.”

13.
Haslam,
Assisted Suicide
, 230.

14.
To date, access to Walters’s diaries is restricted, and they remain in control of the Defense Intelligence Agency. Pending the outcome of my Freedom of Information Act request, I am very grateful to an employee of the National Defense Intelligence College who was kind enough to share this information with me. According to Walters’s diaries, he was in Palm Beach and Miami on 11 September 1973 and made no trips to South America that year.

15.
Hanhimäki, “‘Dr. Kissinger’ or ‘Mr. Henry’?” 676.

16.
For example, see Hanhimäki,
Flawed Architect
, 105; LaFeber,
Inevitable Revolutions
, 197; Lawrence, “History from Below”; Smith,
Last Years of the Monroe Doctrine
, 6, 130–37; Grandin,
Empire’s Workshop
, 1; Ferguson, “Trends in Inter-American Relations: 1972–Mid-1974,” 1; Stephansky, “‘New Dialogue’ on Latin America: The Cost of Policy Neglect,” 154; and Kaplan, “U.S. Arms Transfers to Latin America.” While there have been recent efforts to step outside Chile-focused parameters when it comes to Nixon’s Latin American policy, these have not connected what happened in Chile to other areas of interest. See for example, Brands, “Richard Nixon and Economic Nationalism,” and Spektor,
Kissinger e o Brasil
.

17.
For similar conclusions, see
Covert Action in Chile
, 50–52; Gustafson,
Hostile Intent
; Michael, “Nixon, Chile and the Shadows of the Cold War,” 1; and Kaufman,
Crisis in Allende’s Chile
, 4–5.

18.
Briefing Memorandum, Nachmanoff to Kissinger, 17 June 1971, enclosure, Memorandum, Nachmanoff to Kissinger, 11 August 1971, box H059/NSCIF/NPMP.

19.
Kissinger, 27 June 1970, as quoted in Davis,
Last Two Years
, 6.

20.
On the U.S.-Cuban Cold War in Africa, see Gleijeses,
Conflicting Missions
.

21.
Spenser, “Final Reflections: Standing Conventional Cold War History on Its Head,” 392. The only works on Cuban foreign policy based on archival documents are Gleijeses,
Conflicting Missions
, and Kirk and McKenna,
Canada-Cuba Relations
. Other useful studies on Cuban foreign policy include Domínguez,
To Make a World Safe
; Mesa-Lago,
Cuba in the 1970s
; Erisman,
Cuba’s International Relations
; and D’Esteséfano Pisani,
Política Exterior de la Revolución Cubana
. On the problems associated with studying the history of revolutionary Cuba for Cuban historians and those outside, see Miller, “The Absolution of History.”

22.
Kissinger,
White House Years
, 681–83, 686, and Nixon,
Memoirs of Richard Nixon
, 490.

23.
Quiroga,
Compañeros
, 136, 173, 251–52.

24.
Haslam,
Assisted Suicide
, 75, 126, 153.

25.
See Memorandum, “Covert Action Program for Chile,” 17 November 1970, CDP-NSC, and
Covert Action in Chile
, 38.

26.
On Allende’s supposed lack of control, see Haslam,
Assisted Suicide
, 155.

27.
Rojas Pizarro interview, 1 November 2004. On different sides to Allende—in public, but mostly in terms of his private life—see Labarca,
Biografía Sentimental
.

28.
Fermandois,
Mundo y Fin de Mundo
, 338–41.

29.
To date, the Chilean historian Joaquin Fermandois has written the most comprehensive survey of the period, drawing on interviews, Chilean archival documents, and published material. See Fermandois,
Mundo y Fin de Mundo
. On Soviet-Chilean relations, see Miller,
Soviet Relations with Latin America
, and Ulianova, “La Unidad Popular y el Golpe Militar.” Another invaluable examination of the UP’s foreign policy conducted by ex-Chilean diplomats and scholars with documents is Vera Castillo,
Política Exterior Chilena
.

30.
For varying views, see Sigmund,
Multinationals
, 168; Haslam,
Assisted Suicide
, 30, 64; Andrews and Mitrokhin,
The Mitrokhin Archive II
, 69–88; Fortin, “Principled Pragmatism in the Face of External Pressure,” 12.

31.
Fortin, “Principled Pragmatism in the Face of Pressure,” 221–42.

32.
Colburn,
Vogue of Revolution
, 13.

33.
Red Cross estimates at Derechos Chile and Rettig Commission (1991) at Strategic Choices in the Design of Truth Commissions.

1.
Huerta interview, 23 March 2010.

2.
Muñoz, “The International Policy of the Socialist Party,” 153.

3.
Marambio,
Armas de Ayer
, 41.

4.
Estrada,
Tania
, 12–13, 15.

5.
Frei Montalva, “The Alliance That Lost Its Way.”

6.
Gray,
Latin America and the United States
, vii.

7.
Agenda Annex, “The Setting for Policy Choice,” enclosure, Memorandum, NSC Staff Secretary, Jeanne Davis, to the Vice President et al., 13 October 1969, box H040/NSCIF/NPMP.

8.
See Kruijt,
Revolution by Decree
, 101–2; Lehman,
Bolivia and the United States
, 159; Winn,
Americas
, 478–81; and Berríos, “The USSR and the Andean Countries.”

9.
Allende, Speech to UN General Assembly, 4 December 1972, published as “Address to the United Nations General Assembly,” in Cockcroft,
Allende Reader
, 205–12. See also Allende, Speech from the Federation of Students Building, 5 September 1970, published as “Victory Speech to the People of Santiago,” in Cockcroft,
Allende Reader
, 50, 48.

10.
Hart Dávalos,
Homenaje a Miguel Enríquez
, 8.

11.
Fidel Castro, “Second Declaration of Havana,” 4 February 1962.

12.
Fidel Castro, “History Will Absolve Me” (1953), Fidel Castro History Archive, and Fidel Castro to Celia Sánchez, 5 June 1958, as quoted in Gleijeses,
Conflicting Missions
, 13.

13.
Record of Conversations, Raúl Roa and Polish minister of foreign affairs Stefan Jedrychowski, 24–26 June 1971, Urgent Note, “Notes on the Conversations with Roa,” 30 June 1971, wiazka 3/40/75/AMSZ.

14.
Gleijeses,
Conflicting Missions
, 377.

15.
Manuel Piñeiro, Speech to the DGLN, 8 June 1973, in Suárez,
Manuel Piñeiro
, 102.

16.
Miller,
Soviet Relations with Latin America
, 2, 217–18; Armony, “Transnationalizing the Dirty War,” 138; and Blight and Brenner,
Sad and Luminous Days
.

17.
Venezuelan Communist Party statement, 1967, as quoted in Skierka,
Fidel Castro
, 187.

18.
Castro as quoted in Blight and Brenner,
Sad and Luminous Days
, 122.

19.
Che Guevara, Message to the
Tricontinental
, April 1967, Che Guevara Internet Archive.

20.
Gleijeses,
Conflicting Missions
, 23.

21.
Marambio,
Armas de Ayer
, 48–50, and Huerta interview, 20 April 2010.

22.
Gleijeses,
Conflicting Missions
, 377–78. Gleijeses claims that fewer than forty Cubans fought in Latin America during the 1960s compared to more than one thousand Cubans who went to Algeria, Zaire and the Congo, and Guinea-Bissau. While the figure for those who went to Latin America is probably far higher, there is no doubt that a significantly higher number went to Africa. On a different view of Cuban involvement in Latin America—albeit with an exaggerated emphasis on the Soviet Union’s role in this venture—see Brands,
Latin America’s Cold War
, 40–44.

23.
Debray,
Guerrilla del Che
, 83, and Castañeda,
Compañero
, 331–33.

24.
On disagreements between Che and Fidel, see Castañeda,
Compañero
. On Che’s impatience, see Suárez,
Manuel Piñeiro
, 19.

25.
Blight and Brenner,
Sad and Luminous Days
, 128–29.

26.
Debray,
Guerrilla del Che
, 82–83.

27.
Suárez interview, 10 December 2004, and Berríos, “The USSR and the Andean Countries,” 349.

28.
Suárez interview, 10 December 2004.

29.
Edwards,
Persona Non Grata
, 55–56. On Cuban interest and praise for Velasco Alvarado’s government, see also Record of Conversations, Raúl Roa and Polish minister of foreign affairs Stefan Jedrychowski, 24–26 June 1971, Urgent Note, “Notes on the Conversations with Roa,” 30 June 1971, wiazka 3/40/75/AMSZ.

30.
Plank, “We Should Start Talking to Castro,” 244. Regarding Latin American opinion, see Intelligence Note, INR, “Latin America: Chile’s Renewed Relations with Cuba—A Potential Problem for the OAS,” 30 November 1970, box 2199/RG59/NARA.

31.
Estrada interview, 13 December 2004.

32.
Huerta interview, 20 April 2010, and conversations with Oña, March–April 2010. On the second Bolivian guerrilla struggle, see Bodes Gómez,
En la Senda del Che
, and Rodríguez Ostria,
Teoponte
.

33.
Directorate of Intelligence: Central Intelligence Bulletin, 28 August 1971, CREST/NARA.

34.
Labrousse,
Tupamaros
, 84, and Record of Conversations, Raúl Roa and Polish minister of foreign affairs Stefan Jedrychowski, 24–26 June 1971.

35.
Oña interview, 3 September 2005, and Castillo Estay, “Mucha Gente Me Culpó Cuando Se Suicidó la Tati.”

36.
Domínguez,
To Make a World Safe
, 4.

37.
Castro, Speech at Havana’s Plaza de la Revolución, 26 July 1970, CSD.

38.
Castro, Speech to Plenum of Basic Industrial Workers, 9 December 1970, CSD.

39.
Blight and Brenner,
Sad and Luminous Days
, 124–31.

40.
“Account of the delegation of the PZPR [Polska Zjednoczona Partia Robotnicza; Polish United Workers’ Party] in the Republic of Cuba,” 24 June 1971, wiazka 5/40/75/AMSZ. Emphasis in original.

41.
Estrada interview, and Gleijeses,
Conflicting Missions
, 373–74.

42.
Memorandum, Ambassador Marian Renke, Polish Embassy, Havana, to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “Certain Aspects of Cuba’s Situation and Politics on the American Continent,” 15 October 1971, wiazka 5/40/75/AMSZ.

43.
Castro as quoted in Blight and Brenner,
Sad and Luminous Days
, 142, 122–25.

44.
Memorandum of Conversation, Mario Campora (Argentine Embassy, Washington) and Robert L. Funseth (Coordinator of Cuban Affairs, State Department) et al., 9 April 1970; and Memorandum of Conversation, Counselor Igor D. Bubnov, First Secretary Vladimir A. Romanchencko, and First Secretary Lev C. Ilyin (Soviet Embassy, Washington) and Madison M. Adams Jr. (Economic Officer, Office of the Coordinator of Cuban Affairs, State Department), 11 May 1970, box 223/RG59/NARA.

45.
“Cuba in Latin America,” enclosure, Briefing Memorandum prepared for Fidel Castro’s visit to Poland, no date, c. June 1972, wiazka 3/12/78/AMSZ.

46.
On KGB activities in Peru, see Andrews and Mitrokhin,
Mitrokhin Archive II
, 60–64.