Been in the Storm So Long (135 page)

86.
Ibid.
, VIII: Ark. Narr. (Part 2), 284; Trowbridge,
The South
, 291–92.

87.
Andrews,
The South since the War
, 26; 39 Cong., 1 Sess.,
Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction
, Part III, 3; Stone,
Brokenburn
, 368–69.

88.
Trowbridge,
The South
, 427–28; Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, XVIII: Unwritten History, 138. See also V: Texas Narr. (Part 3), 261.

89.
Williamson,
After Slavery
, 88; John W. Burbidge to Joseph Glover, July 28, 1865, Glover-North Papers, Univ. of South Carolina; Rev. John Jones to Mrs. Jones, July 26, 1865, in Myers (ed.),
Children of Pride
, 1282–83. See also Dr. Ethelred Philips to Dr. James J. Philips, Aug. 2, 1865, James J. Philips Collection, Univ. of North Carolina; H. A. Johnson to “Dear Friend Samuel,” July 14, 1865, Univ. of North Carolina; Emma E. Holmes, Ms. Diary, entry for June 15, 1865, Univ. of South Carolina; Easterby (ed.),
South Carolina Rice Plantation
, 210–211; Oliphant et al. (eds.),
Letters of William Gilmore Simms
, IV, 505; LeConte,
When the World Ended
, 105, 115–16.

90.
For the Union Army and the expulsion of freed slaves from the cities and towns, see above, Chapter 6. For the military role in imposing order on the plantations, se•, e.g., Petition of 18 Planters, Pine ville, Charleston District, Sept. 1, 1865, Trenholm Papers, Univ. of North Carolina; Ravenel,
Private Journal
, 223; Richardson,
Negro in
the Reconstruction of Florida
, 56;
New York Times
, June 16, 1865.

91.
Col. William E. Bayley to Commanding Officer, Vicksburg, Miss., July 3, 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau;
New Orleans Tribune
, April 11, 1865.

92.
Eppes,
Negro of the Old South
, 125; Ball,
The State That Forgot
, 128; Reid,
After the War
, 419. See also Myers (ed.),
Children of Pride
, 1292–93.

93.
Towne,
Letters and Diary
, 20; Knox,
Camp-fire and Cotton Field
, 316–17.

94.
On wartime Federal labor policies in the South, see Gerteis,
From Contraband to Freedman;
Eaton,
Grant, Lincoln, and the Freedmen;
and Wiley,
Southern Negroes
, esp. 230–59. On white and black lessees, see
Christian Recorder
, July 16, 1864;
New Orleans Tribune
, July 11, 1865;
Report of the General Superintendent of Freedmen, Department of the Tennessee and State of Arkansas for 1864
(Memphis, 1865), 14–15, 50; Knox,
Camp-fire and Cotton Field
, 320–21;
National Freedman
, I (Feb. 1, May 1, July 15, 1865), 16–17, 121, 187;
New York Times
, Nov. 13, 28, 1863, Aug. 2, Sept. 26, 1865; and the experience of Isaac Shoemaker in Roark,
Masters Without Slaves
, 118–19. On the Davis Bend project, see Col. Samuel Thomas, “Report of a Trip to Davis Bend, Waterproof and Natchez,” in Warren,
Extracts from Reports of Superintendents of Freedmen;
Reid,
After the War
, 279–87; Trowbridge,
The South
, 383–84; Knox,
Camp-fire and Cotton Field
, 353;
National Freedman
, I (Feb. 1, 1865), 25;
New Orleans Tribune
, July 9, 29, 1865;
New York Times
, Oct. 2, 1864, Aug. 22, 1865; Joseph E. Davis and Benjamin F. Montgomery, Article of Agreement, Oct. 31, 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau;
Semi-Weekly Louisianian
, May 14, 1871;
New National Era
, April 20, 1871; and Wharton,
Negro in Mississippi
, 38–42. After the war, Davis leased two plantations to Benjamin T. Montgomery, his former slave and plantation manager, who subsequently purchased the plantations and became a successful planter.

95.
Emma E. Holmes, Ms. Diary, entry for June 15, 1865, Univ. of South Carolina.

96.
Knox,
Camp-fire and Cotton Field
, 364–69;
Black Republican
, April 15, 1865;
New York Times
, Dec. 22, 1862, Jan. 16, March 5, April 17, 1863, Sept. 25, 1864; Sitterson,
Sugar Country
, 220–23; Gerteis,
From Contraband to Freedman
, 65–82; Wiley,
Southern Negroes
, 210–21; Messner, “Black Violence and White Response: Louisiana, 1862,” 31–37.

97.
New Orleans Tribune
, Aug. 13, Dec. 8, 1864, Jan. 28, Feb. 7, 18, March 14, 19, April 1, 9, July 29, 1865. See also
ibid
, Oct. 16, 1864, March 16, April 13, 1865. For a meeting to protest the labor system and the reaction of Federal authorities, see
ibid.
, March 18, 19, 28, 29, 30, 1865.

98.
New Orleans Tribune
, Oct. 12, 1864; Gerteis,
From Contraband to Freedman
, 90, 113–14.

99.
Messner, “Black Violence and White Response: Louisiana, 1862,” 36–37.

100.
Ruffin,
Diary
, II, 601–03, 670–72.

101.
Thomas Smith to Capt. J. H. Weber, Nov. 3, 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau.

102.
Free Man’s Press
, Sept. 12, 1868; 39 Cong., 1 Sess., House Exec. Doc. 70,
Freedmen’s Bureau
, 263–64.

103.
Lt. George Parliss to Lt. Stuart Eldridge, April 9, 1866; Capt. A. Preston to Eldridge, June 7, 1866; R. H. Willoughby to Bvt. Maj. A. M. Crawford, July 27, 1867; Capt. William A. Poillon to Brig. Gen. Wager Swayne, Nov. 1865; Capt. J. H. Weber to Col. Samuel Thomas, July 1, 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi (Parliss, Preston, Weber), South Carolina (Willoughby), Alabama (Poillon) (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau; 39 Cong., 1 Sess., House Exec. Doc. 70,
Freedmen’s Bureau
, 2–3. For advice to freedmen, see also
ibid.
, 2–3, 34–35, 92–93, 124–25, 231–32, 263–64, 309, 395, and 39 Cong., 1 Sess.,
Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction
, Part II, 230–31;
Colored Tennessean
, Oct. 14, 1865; and Dennett,
The South As It Is
, 250.

104.
S. D. G. Niles to Maj. Gen. T. J. Wood, June 13, 1866, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau; Dennett,
The South As It Is
, 251–52. For native white praise of the Bureau, see also David Humphreys to Bvt. Maj. Gen. Swayne, Nov. 25,
1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Alabama (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau; Moore (ed.),
The Juhl Letters
(Sept. 4, 1865), 37–38; 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Senate Exec. Doc. 27,
Reports of the Assistant Commissioners of the Freedmen’s Bureau
[1865–1866], 81; Dennett,
The South As It Is
, 291–92;
New York Times
, Sept. 13, 1865; Taylor,
Negro in Tennessee
, 14–15; and Wharton,
Negro in Mississippi
, 78. For hostile white views, see Leigh,
Ten Years on a Georgia Plantation
, 33–34; Reid,
After the War
, 577–78; 39 Cong., 1 Sess.,
Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction
, Part II, 113, 123; Wharton,
Negro in Mississippi
, 78.

105.
39 Cong., 1 Sess.,
Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction
, Part II, 230; House Exec. Doc. 70,
Freedmen’s Bureau
, 231; Fisk,
Plain Counsels for Freedmen
, 12. See also O. O. Howard in
National Freedman
, I (Aug. 15, 1865), 234–35, and Col. J. L. Haynes to Capt. B. F. Henry, July 8, 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau.

106.
39 Cong., 1 Sess., House Exec. Doc. 70,
Freedmen’s Bureau
, 219–20. See also Capt. William A. Poillon to Brig. Gen. Wager Swayne, Nov. 1865, and Lt. George Parliss to Lt. Stuart Eldridge, April 9, 1866, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Alabama and Mississippi (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau.

107.
Williamson,
After Slavery
, 87, 91; Richardson,
Negro in the Reconstruction of Florida
, 57–58, 62; Wharton,
Negro in Mississippi
, 74–77; Horace James to the Secretaries of the American Missionary Association, Oct. 20, 1865, American Missionary Assn. Archives. For the work of the Bureau, see also
Autobiography of Oliver Otis Howard
(2 vols.; New York, 1907); “Of the Dawn of Freedom,” in W. E. B. Du Bois,
The Souls of Black Folk
(Chicago, 1903), 13–40; Bentley,
A History of the Freedmen’s Bureau;
McFeely,
Yankee Stepfather;
Abbott,
The Freedmen’s Bureau in South Carolina;
Howard A. White,
The Freedmen’s Bureau in Louisiana
(Baton Rouge, 1970).

108.
Andrews,
The South since the War
, 23–24;
Christian Recorder
, Dec. 1, 1866. For critical observations of Bureau personnel and their treatment of the freedmen, see letters and affidavits from Bacchus Brinson (colored), Augusta, Ga., March 21, 1866, Berry Chalman (freedman), Augusta, Ga., May 24, 1866, William Davis and others (freedmen), March 31, 1866, Margaret J. McMurry (white), Marietta, Ga., Oct. 25, 1866, and M. V. Jordan, Miller Co., Ga., Oct. 27, 1866, in Freedmen’s Bureau (Registers of Letters Received), Georgia. See also black testimony on the Bureau in
Christian Recorder
, Aug. 12, 1865, May 26, June 9, 1866, and Trowbridge,
The South
, 465.

109.
On black Bureau agents, see, e.g., the letters and reports of Martin R. Delany and B. F. Randolph, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, South Carolina (Letters Received), and of J. J. Wright, Records of the Subdivision of Beaufort, South Carolina, Freedmen’s Bureau.

110.
New Orleans Tribune
, Dec. 14, 23, 1865.

111.
De Forest,
Union Officer in the Reconstruction
, 39, 41–42. See also Dennett,
The South As It Is
, 109–10, 221.

112.
New Orleans Tribune
, Oct. 31, 1867; De Forest,
Union Officer in the Reconstruction
, 29–30. For typical cases handled by a Bureau agent, see, e.g., Reports of J. J. Wright, Records of the Subdivision of Beaufort, South Carolina, and the Tri-Monthly Reports of James DeGrey, as submitted to William H. Webster, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Louisiana (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau; Dennett,
The South As It Is
, 125–26; and De Forest,
Union Officer in the Reconstruction
, 28–36.

113.
Dennett,
The South As It Is
, 73–74. See also the testimony of Lorenzo Ivy in Armstrong and Ludlow,
Hampton and Its Students
, 80.

114.
Christian Recorder
, June 23, 1866; Affidavit of Bacchus Brinson, Augusta, Ga., March 21, 1866, Freedmen’s Bureau (Registers of Letters Received), Georgia; Amos McCollough to Gen. O. O. Howard, May 6, 1866, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, North Carolina (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau.

115.
39 Cong., 2 Sess., Senate Exec. Doc. 6,
Reports of the Assistant Commissioners of Freedmen
[Jan. 3, 1867], 113, 116; Capt. Randolph Stoops to Capt. George L. Childs, July 15, 1865, and Statement of
Frederick Nicholas and Miner Poindexter of Columbia, Fluvanna Co., Virginia, June 28, 1865, Brock Collection, Henry E. Huntington Library.

116.
Lt. George Parliss to Lt. Stuart Eldridge, April 9, 1866, Capt. J. H. Weber to Col. Samuel Thomas, July 1, 1865, Maj. George D. Reynolds to Lt. Stuart Eldridge, Oct. 5, 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau.

117.
New Orleans Tribune
, Oct. 31, 1867; Lt. C. W. Clarke to Col. Samuel Thomas, June 29, 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau.

118.
New Orleans Tribune
, Aug. 31, Oct. 22, 1865.

1.
Henry Lee Swint,
The Northern Teacher in the South, 1862–1870
(Nashville, 1941), 89.

2.
Christian Recorder
, Sept. 30, 1865.

3.
Nordhoff,
Freedmen of South Carolina
, 7–8.

4.
Botume,
First Days Amongst the Contrabands
, 237; Towne,
Letters and Diary
, 31;
New Orleans Tribune
, Oct. 11, Nov. 21, 1865.

5.
Lt. Edward M. Stoeber to Bvt. Maj. Taylor, July 24, 1865; “Memorandum of Extracts from Speech by Major Delany, African, at the Brick Church, St. Helena Island, South Carolina, Sunday, July 23, 1865,” submitted by Lt. Alexander Whyte, Jr., to Col. Charles H. Howard, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, South Carolina (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau. For the speech’s repercussions, see also W. E. Towne to Bvt. Maj. Gen. Saxton, Aug. 17, 1865, in the same records.

6.
Loyal Georgian
, Jan. 20, 1866.

7.
New York Times
, April 30, 1865; 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Senate Exec. Doc. 53,
Preliminary Report … by the American Freedmen’s Inquiry Commission, June 30, 1863
, 6–7. For favorable views of black labor, see also, e.g., W. E. Towne to Bvt. Maj. Gen. Saxton, Aug. 17, 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, South Carolina (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau; A. C. Voris to Maj. George A. Hicks, Oct. 21, 1865, Brock Collection, Henry E. Huntington Library; 39 Cong., 1 Sess.,
Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction
, Part 1, 117–18, Part II, 5, 13, 42, 43, 182, 247; Loring and Atkinson,
Cotton Culture and the South
, 8–9, 10; Reid,
After the War
, 569–70; Trowbridge,
The South
, 138, 162, 581;
Colored Tennessean
, March 24, 1866;
Christian Recorder
, Aug. 19, Sept. 30, 1865;
New York Times
, April 8, Oct. 1, Nov. 12, 1865.