Been in the Storm So Long (132 page)

127.
39 Cong., 2 Sess., House Report 16,
New Orleans Riots
(Washington, D.C., 1866); McFeely,
Yankee Stepfather
, 282–87;
New York Times
, July 29, 31, Aug. 1, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 16, 17, 24, Oct. 14, 1866.

128.
Dennett,
The South As It Is
, 150–51.

129.
On March 22, 1865, the
New Orleans Tribune
concluded that during the last twenty years of slavery, colored residents had fared better before the courts than at the present time. For the legal system and slaves, see Stampp,
The Peculiar Institution
, 217–31.

130.
New York Times
, July 29, 1866; David Humphreys to Bvt. Maj. Gen. Swayne, Nov. 25, 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Alabama (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau; Coulter, “Slavery and Freedom in Athens, Georgia, 1860–66,” in Miller and Genovese (eds.),
Plantation, Town, and County
, 361.

131.
New York Times
, Oct. 28, 1866; Julius J. Fleming to Gen. Scott, Sept. 15, 1866, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, South Carolina (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau.

132.
De Forest,
Union Officer in the Reconstruction
, 1–14. For the varied record of the provost courts and the Freedmen’s Bureau in meting out equal justice, see Capt. George R. Hurlbut to Capt. George L. Childs, Sept. 30, 1865, and Col. Orlando Brown to Capt. Frank P. Crandon, Aug. 31, 1865, Brock Collection, Henry E. Huntington Library; Henry Crocheron et al. to Gen Swayne, Nov. 24, 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Alabama; Julius J. Fleming to Gen. Scott, Sept. 15, 1866, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, South Carolina; Bvt. Maj. Thomas H. Norton to Maj. A. W. Preston, Aug. 3, 1867, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau;
New Orleans Tribune
, Aug. 14, 1865; Trowbridge,
The South
, 446; Dennett,
The South As It Is
, 223; William W. Rogers,
Thomas County, 1865–1900
(Tallahassee, 1973), 407; Williamson,
After Slavery
, 327; Richardson,
Negro in the Reconstruction of Florida
, 41–42, 51–52; Martin Abbott,
The Freedmen’s Bureau in South Carolina, 1865–1872
(Chapel Hill, N.C., 1967), 100–02; McFeely,
Yankee Stepfather
, 267–73; George R. Bentley,
A History of the Freedmen’s Bureau
(Philadelphia, 1955), 152–68.

133.
William Daniel to John A. Needles, May 6, 1865, Pennsylvania Society for
Promoting the Abolition of Slavery, Historical Society of Pennsylvania; John Baker to Maj. Gen. Thomas J. Woods, May 20, 1866, and Bvt. Maj. Thomas H. Norton to Maj. A. W. Preston, Aug. 3, 1867, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi; Julius J. Fleming to Gen. Scott, Sept. 15, 1866, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, South Carolina (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau; 39 Cong., 2 Sess., Senate Exec. Doc. 6,
Reports of the Assistant Commissioners of Freedmen
(Washington, D.C., 1867), 32, 60, 123;
Freedmen’s Affairs in Kentucky and Tennessee, Report of Brevet Major General Carlin
 … (Washington, D.C., 1868), 30;
Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction
, Part III, 8;
New Orleans Tribune
, Nov. 29, 1865;
Loyal Georgian
, Feb, 24, 1866;
New York Times
, Sept. 26, 1866, April 14, 1867; Richardson,
Negro in the Reconstruction of Florida
, 40, 44–46, 47–48; Taylor,
Negro in Tennessee
, 41.

134.
Trowbridge,
The South
, 435–36; Macrae,
Americans at Home
, 139.

135.
New York Times
, July 29, 1866; Trowbridge,
The South
, 464, 446–47.

136.
New York Times
, Aug. 30, 1867; Dennett,
The South As It Is
, 221; Trowbridge,
The South
, 463; 39 Cong., 1 Sess.,
Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction
, Part III, 8; House Exec. Doc. 70,
Freedmen’s Bureau
, 201; Richardson,
Negro in the Reconstruction of Florida
, 164; Bvt. Col. A. E. Niles to Bvt. Maj. Gen. R. K. Scott, Dec. 10, 1866, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, South Carolina; Capt. W. G. Wedemeyer to Bvt. Maj. S. G. Greene, July 25, 1868, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau.

137.
Richardson,
Negro in the Reconstruction of Florida
, 40–41, 44; Trowbridge,
The South
, 499; Stampp,
The Peculiar Institution
, 220.

138.
New Orleans Tribune
, July 14, Nov. 29, 1865; Dennett,
The South As It Is
, 128; Reid,
After the War
, 51n.-52n.; 39 Cong., 1 Sess.,
Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction
, Part II, 213. See also Ira Pettibone to “Bro. Whitney,” Feb. 22, 1865, American Missionary Assn. Archives.

139.
Andrews,
The South since the War
, 189; Dennett,
The South As It Is
, 75. See also Dennett,
The South As It Is
, 111, 157, 168, 181;
New York Times
, Sept. 10, Oct. 1, 1865; Wharton,
Negro in Mississippi
, 134–35.

140.
Dennett,
The South As It Is
, 54, 132.

141.
Convention of the Freedmen of North Carolina
(Raleigh, 1865), 5; Thomas W. Knox,
Camp-fire and Cotton Field: Southern Adventure in Time of War
(New York, 1865), 337. For examples of black jurymen, see
Colored American
, Dec. 30, 1865;
New Orleans Tribune
, July 4, 1867;
New York Times
, Aug. 25, 30, Sept. 1, Oct. 20, 1867; Williamson,
After Slavery
, 329; Wharton,
Negro in Mississippi
, 137.

142.
William V. Turner to Gen. Wager Swayne, Nov. 17, 1865, and Prince Murell et al. to Gen. Wager Swayne, Dec. 17, 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Alabama (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau;
New Orleans Tribune
, Nov. 11, Dec. 27, 1865, Sept. 2, 1866;
Christian Recorder
, Sept. 22, 1866. For protests of police abuses, see also C. P. Head et al., Vicksburg, to Brig. Gen. Samuel Thomas, April 17, 1866, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi (Letters Received);
New Orleans Tribune
, May 10, 1865; 39 Cong., 1 Sess.,
Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction
, Part II, 185. For examples of black police, see
New Orleans Tribune
, June 4, 6, 11, July 3, 1867;
New York Times
, Aug. 3, 10, Oct. 28, 1867. On the need for black police, see
New Orleans Tribune
, May 10, 1867.

143.
Loyal Georgian
, Feb. 24, 1866;
New Orleans Tribune
, July 14, 1865.

144.
Swint (ed.),
Dear Ones at Home
, 169;
New Orleans Tribune
, March 22, June 7, July 18, 26, Aug. 31, 1865, Aug. 31, Sept. 1, 1866.

145.
William Johnson to his parents, July 12, 1867, Main File, Henry E. Huntington Library; Letter from L. J. Leavy, July 4, 1866, Freedmen’s Bureau, Georgia (Registers of Letters Received);
New York Times
, April 2, 1866; “Report of the Commissioner of the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen and Abandoned Lands, November 1, 1866,” in
Report of the Secretary of War
(Washington, D.C., 1867), Appendix, 733; Rev. Horace James,
Annual Report of the Superintendent
of Negro Affairs in North Carolina, 1864 …
(Boston, n.d.), 21. See also
New York Times
, May 27, July 1, 1866.

146.
James McMahon, City Clerk, Columbia, to Col. Mansfield, May 29, 1866; Col. Mansfield to Col. H. W. Smith, May 30, 1866; Letter from “a colored woman,” May 16, 1866, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, South Carolina (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau.

1.
Eppes,
Negro of the Old South
, 134.

2.
Perdue et al. (eds.),
Weevils in the Wheat
, 213.

3.
Myers (ed.),
Children of Pride
, 1292–93.

4.
Ella Gertrude (Clanton) Thomas, Ms. Journal, entries for Dec. 12, 1864, May 7 to Oct. 9, 1865, Sept. 17, 1866, Duke Univ.

5.
A. R. Salley to “My Dear Aunt,” Nov. 13, 1865, Bruce, Jones, Murchison Papers, Univ. of South Carolina.

6.
Eppes,
Negro of the Old South
, 134.

7.
Dr. Ethelred Philips to Dr. James J. Philips, Jan. 21, 1866, James J. Philips Collection, Univ. of North Carolina; Ball,
The State That Forgot
, 128; Emma E. Holmes, Ms. Diary, entry for June 15, 1865, Univ. of South Carolina. For freed slaves who equated departure with freedom, see also Duncan McLaurin to Gov. E. Hawley, May 23, 1866, McLaurin Papers, Duke Univ.; 39 Cong., 1 Sess.,
Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction
, Part II, 99, 187, Part III, 118, 173;
National Freedman
, I (Nov. 15, 1865), 327; Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, XVII: Fla. Narr., 103.

8.
Mrs. Edward Smith Tennent to “My Dear Aunt” [Hattie Taylor], July 2, 1865, Dr. Edward Smith Tennent Papers, Univ. of South Carolina. For similar laments, see Hope L. Jones to “Aunt,” Feb. 28, 1866, Bruce, Jones, Murchison Papers, and Emma E. Holmes, Ms. Diary, Aug. 22, 1865, Univ. of South Carolina; Chamberlain,
Old Days in Chapel Hill
, 88; Myers (ed.),
Children of Pride
, 1248, 1274; Ravenel,
Private Journal
, 244; D. E. H. Smith (ed.),
Mason Smith Family Letters
, 205;
New York Times
, March 9, 1865; Peter Kolchin,
First Freedom: The Responses of Alabama’s Blacks to Emancipation and Reconstruction
(Westport, Conn., 1972), 6.

9.
Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, VIII: Ark. Narr. (Part 2), 14. See also II: S.C. Narr. (Part 1), 142; IV and V: Texas Narr. (Part 1), 162, 209, (Part 3), 192, (Part 4), 1.

10.
Ibid.
, IV: Texas Narr. (Part 2), 81–85; Armstrong,
Old Massa’s People
, 319. See also Haviland,
A Woman’s Life-Work
, 266; Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, XIV: N.C. Narr. (Part 1), 215.

11.
Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, XIII: Ga. Narr. (Part 3), 293; Sarah M. Payne to Mary M. Clendenin, Sept. 30, 1865, Historical Society of Pennsylvania; Dennett,
The South As It Is
, 13–14.

12.
Chesnut,
Diary from Dixie
, 538; Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, XV: N.C. Narr. (Part 2), 290; XIII: Ga. Narr. (Part 3), 162. See also II: S.C. Narr. (Part 2), 84; VII: Miss. Narr., 28, 29–30.

13.
Trowbridge,
The South
, 209; Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, IX: Ark. Narr. (Part 4), 183–84.

14.
Andrews,
The South since the War
, 25–26.

15.
New Orleans Tribune
, Nov. 12, 1865.

16.
Eppes,
Through Some Eventful Years
, 284–85; Avary,
Dixie after the War
, 188.

17.
Simkins and Patton,
Women of the Confederacy
, 251; LeConte,
When the World Ended
, 41, 112.

18.
Grace B. Elmore, Ms. Diary, entry for May 30, 1865, Univ. of North Carolina; Mrs. Mary Jones to Mrs. Mary S. Mallard, Nov. 17, 1865, in Myers (ed.),
Children of Pride
, 1308.

19.
Eppes,
Through Some Eventful Years
, 279–80, 285–86.

20.
See, e.g., Dennett,
The South As It Is
, 127–28;
National Freedman
, I (July 15, 1865), 182; Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, IV: Texas Narr. (Part 1), 60.

21.
Dennett,
The South As It Is
, 223; 39 Cong., 1 Sess., House Exec. Doc. 70,
Freedmen’s Bureau
, 388–89;
New York Times
, Aug. 2, 1865.

22.
New York Times
, Aug. 31, 1865, April 9, 1866. See also 39 Cong., 1 Sess.,
Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction
,
Part III, 142. On the role of the Union Army and the Freedmen’s Bureau, see below, Chapters 7 and 8
.

23.
Ella Gertrude (Clanton) Thomas, Ms. Journal, entry for May 1865, Duke Univ.

24.
H. R. Brinkerhoff to Maj. Gen. O. O. Howard, July 8, 1865, John L. Barnett to “Colonel,” June 27, 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi and North Carolina (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau. See also Trowbridge,
The South
, 332, 461.

25.
Dennett,
The South As It Is
, 364.

26.
Ibid.
, 226–27, 364–65. See also Andrews,
The South since the War
, 207, 221; Botume,
First Days Amongst the Contrabands
, 209–10.

27.
39 Cong., 1 Sess., Senate Exec. Doc. 27,
Reports of the Assistant Commissioners of the Freedmen’s Bureau
[1865–1866], 85; Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, IV: Texas Narr. (Part 1), 159;
New York Tribune
, July 25, 1865.

28.
Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, VI: Ala. Narr., 102; VII: Miss. Narr., 154–55; IV: Texas Narr. (Part 1), 14–16. See also Leigh,
Ten Years on a Georgia Plantation
, 14, 33–35.

29.
Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, XIV: N.C. Narr. (Part 1), 6–7; XIII: Ga. Narr. (Part 3), 207–08; De Forest,
Union Officer in the Reconstruction
, 36–37. See also Dennett,
The South As It Is
, 229, and Botume,
First Days Amongst the Contrabands
, 209–10.

30.
New York Times
, Nov. 28, 1863; Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, X: Ark. Narr. (Part 5), 17, 18; C. W. Clarke to Col. Samuel Thomas, June 29, 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau.

31.
Higginson,
Army Life in a Black Regiment
, 266;
New York Tribune
, Nov. 10, 1865. See also
New York Times
, Aug. 5, 1864, Sept. 29, 1865.

32.
Williamson,
After Slavery
, 110; 39 Cong., 1 Sess.,
Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction
, Part II, 56. See also Blassingame (ed.),
Slave Testimony
, 384. On the postwar black conventions, see below, Chapter 10.

33.
Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, IV: Texas Narr. (Part 1), 300; Richardson,
Negro in the Reconstruction of Florida
, 75–78; Trowbridge,
The South
, 460. On interstate migration patterns, see Wharton,
Negro in Mississippi
, 107; Williamson,
After Slavery
, 108–09; Richardson,
Negro in the Reconstruction of Florida
, 75–76; Kolchin,
First Freedom
, 20–21; De Forest,
Union Officer in the Reconstruction
, 130–31; Moore (ed.),
The Juhl Letters
, 143. In mid-1866, Oliver O. Howard, head of the Freedmen’s Bureau, authorized transportation for delegates elected by the freedmen of Roanoke Island to visit plantations in Texas and explore employment opportunities there. If the investigation justified migration, freedmen in “the large and destitute settlements” would then be induced to move. O. O. Howard to Bvt. Maj. Gen. J. Robinson, Aug. 22, 1866, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, North Carolina (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau.

34.
Reid,
After the War
, 562–63; Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, XI: Mo. Narr., 117; XIII: Ga. Narr. (Part 4), 90–91.

35.
Wharton,
Negro in Mississippi
, 109; Kolchin,
First Freedom
, 12–19, 22–23.

36.
Andrews,
The South since the War
, 350–62.

37.
Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, IV: Texas Narr. (Part 2), 133. See also Macrae,
Americans at Home
, 324.

38.
Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, XIV: N.C. Narr. (Part 1), 124; V: Texas Narr. (Part 4), 39; Trowbridge,
The South
, 155–56; Weymouth T. Jordan,
Hugh Davis and His Alabama Plantation
(University, Ala., 1948), 160; Ephraim M. Anderson,
Memoirs: Historical and Personal
(St. Louis, 1868), 364; George Parliss to Stuart Eldridge, April 9, 1866, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau. See also
National Freedman
, I (Nov. 15, 1865), 327; Perdue et al. (eds.),
Weevils in the Wheat
, 262.

39.
Loyal Georgian
, March 3, 1866; Reid,
After the War
, 69;
New York Times
, Sept. 2, 1865.

40.
New York Times
, Dec. 10, 1865.

41.
Loring and Atkinson,
Cotton Culture and the South
, 9, 13–14; Wharton,
Negro in Mississippi
, 126–27, 128; Williamson,
After Slavery
, 38, 159–62; Taylor,
Negro in Tennessee
, 141–42;
The Union
(New Orleans), July 14, 1863.

42.
Dew,
Ironmaker to the Confederacy
,
313–14. With the end of the war, the need to reconstruct shattered railroad tracks and build new lines produced immediate opportunities for freedmen to leave the fields for work that would be more remunerative. See, e.g., Loring and Atkinson,
Cotton Culture and the South
, 13–14, 17;
New York Times
, Feb. 24, 1867; Reid,
After the War
, 331; Capt. J. H. Weber to Col. Samuel Thomas, July 1, 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau; Taylor,
Negro in the Reconstruction of Virginia
, 114; Taylor,
Negro in Tennessee
, 152–53; Wharton,
Negro in Mississippi
, 125.

43.
Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, XVI: Va. Narr., 7–8, 55–56.

44.
Wharton,
Negro in Mississippi
, 106–07; Kolchin,
First Freedom
, 10; Taylor,
Negro in the Reconstruction of Virginia
, 32–34; Williamson,
After Slavery
, 108; Nevins,
War for the Union: The Organized War, 1863–1864
, 363–64;
New York Times
, Aug. 6, 1865.

45.
Josiah Gorgas, Ms. Journal, entry for June 2, 1865, Univ. of North Carolina; Kolchin,
First Freedom
, 10.

46.
Ravenel,
Private Journal
, 244; Margaret L. Montgomery (ed.), “Alabama Freedmen: Some Reconstruction Documents,”
Phylon
, XIII (3rd Quarter 1952), 145; Kolchin,
First Freedom
, 7; Myers (ed.),
Children of Pride
, 1263, 1292;
New York Times
, July 17, 1865; Elias Horry Deas to Anne Deas, Aug. 12, 1865, Deas Papers, Univ. of South Carolina; Capt. William A. Poillon to Brig. Gen. Wager Swayne, Nov. 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Alabama (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau.

47.
Baton Rouge Advocate
, Feb. 21, 1866, quoted in Dennett,
The South As It Is
, 343–44;
Memphis Daily Avalanche
, March 15, 1866, quoted in Holmes, “The Underlying Causes of the Memphis Race Riot of 1866,” 203n. See also
New York Times
, Sept. 1, 1865; Elias Horry Deas to Anne Deas, Aug. 12, 1865, Deas Papers, Univ. of South Carolina; Edward Lynch to Joseph Glover [c. June 1865], Glover-North Papers, Univ. of South Carolina; Wharton,
Negro in Mississippi
, 53; Richardson,
Negro in the Reconstruction of Florida
, 33–34.

48.
Elias Horry Deas to Anne Deas, Aug. 12, 1865, Deas Papers, Univ. of South Carolina;
New York Times
, Sept. 2, 1865; Emma E. Holmes, Ms. Diary, entry for June 15, 1865, Univ. of South Carolina.

49.
Emma E. Holmes, Ms. Diary, entry for End of May 1865, Univ. of South Carolina; Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, XIII: Ga. Narr. (Part 4), 235.

50.
Elias Horry Deas to Anne Deas, July, Aug. 12, 1865, Deas Papers, Univ. of South Carolina.

51.
39 Cong., 1 Sess., House Exec. Doc. 70,
Freedmen’s Bureau
, 231.

52.
Loyal Georgian
, April 10, 1867;
Christian Recorder
, Dec. 16, 1865;
Black Republican
, April 29, 1865. For similar advice, see
Colored Tennessean
, Oct. 14, 1865.

53.
New York Tribune
, June 12, 17, 27, July 16, Aug. 8, 1865;
New York Times
, June 15, 1865;
New Orleans Tribune
, Aug. 26, 1865.

54.
Christian Recorder
, July 21, 1866. See also, e.g.,
ibid.
, June 10, July 8, 1865;
New Orleans Tribune
, July 8, 1865;
New York Times
, June 11, 1865, July 29, 1866;
The Union
, April 9, 1864.

55.
New York Times
, July 7, 1865; Henry Crocheron et al. to Gen. Swayne, Nov. 24, 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Alabama (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau;
Christian Recorder
, June 10, 1865. For a black protest meeting in Selma, Ala., see
New York Times
, Nov. 12, 1865.

56.
Kolchin,
First Freedom
, 7;
New Orleans Tribune
, July 22, 26, 29, 1865; 39 Cong., 2 Sess., Senate Exec. Doc. 6,
Reports of the Assistant Commissioners of Freedmen
, 129;
New York Times
, Oct. 28, 1865.

57.
The Union
, April 9, 1864;
New Orleans Tribune
, Aug. 18, 1864, July 16, 26, 1865;
New York Times
, Feb. 2, 1863, Sept. 28, Nov. 13, 1865;
New York Tribune
, June 12, 1865; 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Senate Exec. Doc. 27,
Reports of the Assistant Commissioners of the Freedmen’s Bureau
[1865–1866], 51; 39 Cong., 2 Sess., Senate Exec. Doc. 6,
Reports of the Assistant Commissioners of Freedmen
, 129.