Delusions of Gender (39 page)

1
(Fara, 2005). See pp. 93–96.

2
(Barres, 2006), p. 134.

3
(Schilt, 2006), p. 476.

4
See also data and arguments provided by (Valian, 1998).

5
(Steinpreis, Anders, & Ritzke, 1999). Estimated from figure 5, p. 520.

6
(Steinpreis, Anders, & Ritzke, 1999), p. 523.

7
(Davison & Burke, 2000). However, sex discrimination was greater when less job-relevant information was available.

8
(Heilman, 2001), p. 659.

9
(Biernat & Kobrynowicz, 1997).

10
Interestingly, when evaluations were made on vague, subjective scales (
very poorly to very well
, or
very unlikely to very likely
), Katherine was preferred for the chief of staff position, while Kenneth was favoured as a secretary. However, the researchers suggested that this was because Katherine was seen as being a good
candidate for the masculine job
for a woman
, while Kenneth was perceived as an impressive potential secretary
for a man
. When more objective scales were used that forced the raters to put numbers and percentiles to their evaluations, the pattern reversed.

11
(Correll, Benard, & Paik, 2007). Participants were undergraduates, told that their input would be used along with other information in real hiring decisions.

12
See, for example (Crosby, Williams, & Biernat, 2004) and other articles in the same issue.

13
(Bledsoe, 1856), pp. 224 and 225.

14
(Rudman & Kilianski, 2000).

15
See, for example (Rudman, 1998; Rudman & Glick, 1999, 2001). For summary of research suggesting that warmth and competence are fundamental dimensions of social perception, see (Fiske, Cuddy, & Glick, 2007).

16
A phrase coined by Janet Holmes, author of
Gendered Talk
, cited by (Cameron, 2007), p. 141.

17
M. Dowd, ‘Who’s hormonal? Hillary or Dick?’
New York Times
, February 8, 2006, p. A21, quoted by study authors (Brescoll & Uhlmann, 2008), p. 268.

18
(Cuddy, Fiske, & Glick, 2004). Interestingly, in this study gender per se was not a factor for discrimination, although it’s possible that this was because of the phenomenon described in note 10.

19
(Rudman et al., manuscript submitted for publication).

20
(Norton, Vandello, & Darley, 2004).

21
(Uhlmann & Cohen, 2005), p. 479.

22
(Uhlmann & Cohen, 2005), p. 478, references removed.

23
(Phelan, Moss-Racusin, & Rudman, 2008), p. 408.

24
Quoted in (Monastersky, 2005), para. 42.

25
(Bolino & Turnley, 2003; Bowles, Babcock, & Lai, 2007; Butler & Geis, 1990; Heilman & Chen, 2005; Heilman et al., 2004; Sinclair & Kunda, 2000).

26
(Heilman, 2001), p. 670.

27
(Cameron, 2007), pp. 134 and 135.

28
(Ryan et al., 2007), p. 270.

29
See (Ashby, Ryan, & Haslam, 2007; Haslam & Ryan, 2008). Other data forthcoming, summarised in (Ryan et al., 2007), pp. 270 and 271.

30
(Uhlmann & Cohen, 2005).

31
(Williams, 1992), p. 256.

32
(Wingfield, 2009).

33
(Gorman & Kmec, 2007), p. 839.

34
Quoted in (Allen, 2009), para. 7.

35
(Hersch, 2006), p. 352.

36
(Liben, Bigler, & Krogh, 2001).

1
Quoted in (MacAdam, 1914), para. 12.

2
(Glick & Fiske, 2007), p. 162.

3
(Glick & Fiske, 2007), p. 163.

4
Quoted in (MacAdam, 1914), para. 13.

5
(Selmi, 2005), pp. 41 and 25, respectively.

6
(Selmi, 2005), p. 31.

7
(Roth, 2004), p. 630.

8
(Hewlett, Servon et al., 2008), pp. 7 and 8, respectively.

9
Quoted in (Verghis, 2009), p. 26.

10
(Morgan & Martin, 2006), p. 121.

11
(Morgan & Martin, 2006), quotations from pp. 116, 117, and 118, respectively.

12
Quoted in (Dugan, 2008).

13
Quoted in D. Valler, Business visitors expect this on the agenda.
Coventry Evening Telegraph
, November 9, 2005, p. 8. Quoted in (Jeffreys, 2008), p. 166.

14
Quoted in (Lynn, 2006), para. 22.

15
http://www.stringfellows.co.uk/clubs/pages/corporate-events.php
, accessed on August 27, 2009.

16
(Barnyard & Lewis, 2009).

17
(Morgan & Martin, 2006), p. 117.

18
According to the court testimony of one London financial executive, cited by (Lynn, 2006).

19
(Jeffreys, 2008), p. 155.

20
(Lynn, 2006), para. 24.

21
(Selmi, 2005), pp. 24 and 36, respectively. Selmi makes this argument in the context of a discussion of changing academic theories of sexual harassment.

22
(Selmi, 2005), p. 7.

23
(Hewlett et al., 2008), p. 7.

24
(Hinze, 2004), p. 105, referring to the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission definition of a hostile environment.

25
(Hinze, 2004), pp. 109, 111, and 111, respectively.

26
(Hinze, 2004), pp. 120, 114, 115, 114–115, and 115, respectively.

27
(Kimmel, 2008), p. 227.

28
(Woodzicka & LaFrance, 2001). Sixty-eight percent of women who merely
imagined
themselves in this situation thought that they would refuse to answer at least one question, 16 percent said they would leave the interview, and 6 percent said they would report the interviewer to his supervisor. The percentages of women who actually responded in these ways to
real
sexually
harassing interview questions were, respectively, 0 percent, 0 percent and 0 percent.

29
Philadelphia Evening Bulletin
, November 8, 1869. Quoted in (Morantz-Sanchez, 1985), p. 9.

30
(Selmi, 2005), p. 25 then p. 30.

31
(Gutek & Done, 2001).

1
M. Ulrich, ‘Men are queer that way: Extracts from the diary of an apostate woman physician’,
Scribner’s Magazine
93 (June 1933), pp. 365–369. Quoted in (Morantz-Sanchez, 1985), pp. 325 and 326 (epigraph included).

2
(Hochschild, 1990).

3
See, for example (Bittman et al., 2003; Brines, 1994).

4
Quoted in (Belkin, 2008), para. 28.

5
(Gray, 2008), quotations from pp. 123, 123, 124, 125, 123, and 123, respectively.

6
(Gurian, 2004), pp. 219, 219, and 220, respectively.

7
(Bittman et al., 2003), p. 198. Note that sociologists are not entirely in agreement as to how this pattern is best explained.

8
The phrase ‘doing gender’ refers to a theory by sociologists Candace West and Don Zimmerman.

9
(Tichenor, 2005), pp. 197, 198, 199, 201, and 199–200, respectively.

10
(Selmi, 2008), p. 21.

11
Ulrich, ‘Men are queer that way’. Quoted in (Morantz-Sanchez, 1985), p. 326.

12
(Hochschild, 1990) also discusses the contradictions between people’s explicit and implicit gender ideologies.

13
(Devos et al., 2007).

14
See (Greenwald et al., 2009).

15
(Rudman & Heppen, 2003).

16
(Rudman, Phelan, & Heppen, 2007).

17
(Stone, 2007), p. 64.

18
For interesting discussions of this issue, see (Jolls, 2002; Selmi, 2008).

19
Quoted in (Belkin, 2008), para. 39.

20
For example, see (Jolls, 2002) for evidence of discrimination with implications for wages, (Weichselbaumer & Winter-Ebmer, 2005) for data on the international gender wage gap, and (Kilbourne et al., 1994) for data showing
that occupations pay less to the extent that they have a higher proportion of female workers or involve greater nurturing.

21
In fact, sociological studies of how gender ideology changes in response to life experience find that parenthood doesn’t inevitably bring about less egalitarian views. People who have children at a nonnormative time don’t show this shift, and parenthood brings about a shift towards more egalitarian views in unmarried parents (Davis, 2007; Vespa, 2009).

22
Ulrich, ‘Men are queer that way’. Quoted in (Morantz-Sanchez, 1985), p. 327.

23
(Brizendine, 2007), pp. 151 and 208, respectively.

24
(Brizendine, 2007), p. 207.

25
(Stone, 2007), pp. 77 and 78.

26
See (van Anders & Watson, 2006). Also (Silvers & Haidt, 2008) who found that watching a morally elevating video triggered nursing in mothers, suggesting oxytocin release.

27
See (van Anders & Watson, 2006; Wynne-Edwards, 2001; Wynne-Edwards & Reburn, 2000).

28
(Deutsch, 1999), p. 230. First quotation is Deutsch, second quotation is from her interviewee.

29
(Rosenblatt, 1967).

30
Wynne-Edwards suggests that ‘paternal and maternal behavior are homologous at a neural and an endocrine level’, and that this makes sense for reasons of parsimony (Wynne-Edwards, 2001), p. 139.

31
(Demos, 1982), p. 429. See also (Collins, 1982).

32
Parents’ Magazine
. Family prayer in men of business. May 1842, p. 198. Quoted in (Demos, 1982), p. 436.

33
See, for example, discussion in (Hamilton, 2004), pp. 205–207. The
Yearning for Balance
report cited by Hamilton found that 40 percent of ‘downshifters’ (that is, people who shift their emphasis to leisure and relationships rather than economic success) in a survey of 800 adults were men. The Harwood Group,
Yearning for Balance: Views of Americans on consumption
,
materialism
,
and the environment
, prepared for the Merck Family Fund.
http://www.iisd.ca/consume/harwood.html
, accessed on August 27, 2009.

34
Quoted in (Montemurri, 2009), para. 3.

1
(Pinker, 2008), p. 255.

2
(Levy, 2004), p. 323.

3
The cartoon is by Tom Cheney, published in
The New Yorker
on May 3, 1993.

4
(Hamilton, 2004), p. 130. Hamilton is not referring here to gender, but to the
role of marketing and a political emphasis on the primacy of the importance of economic growth on people’s preferences.

5
(Mason & Goulden, 2004).

6
(Gharibyan, 2009).

7
(Gharibyan, 2007, p.10; Gharibyan & Gunsaulus, 2006). Computer science is not male dominated in Singapore or Malaysia either (Galpin, 2002).

8
(Charles & Bradley, 2009).

9
(Peplau & Fingerhut, 2004).

10
(Charles & Bradley, 2009), p. 929.

11
For example (Costa, Terracciano, & McCrae, 2001; Fullagar et al., 2003; Guimond, 2008; Prime et al., 2008).

12
(Steele & Ambady, 2006), pp. 434 and 435.

13
(Ridgeway & Correll, 2004), p. 520.

1
(Hess, 1990), p. 81, references removed.

2
(Brizendine, 2007), pp. 36, 36, and 37 and 38, respectively.

3
I say ‘seems’ because, so far as I can tell, Brizendine does not refer to any evidence that supports these terrifying claims. In the notes, to support the claim about ‘growing more cells in the sex and aggression centres’, Brizendine cites an irrelevant review of cortical development in the rat (M. Sur and J. L. Rubenstein, ‘Patterning and plasticity of the cerebral cortex’,
Science
310, no. 5749 [2005], pp. 805–810), which makes no mention of sex differences. To support the claim that ‘[t]he fetal girl’s brain cells sprout more connections in the communication centers and areas that process emotion’ she refers the reader to
Chapter 6
, ‘Emotions’. However, I was unable to find any research or discussion of foetal brain development in this chapter. The absence of support for these and other similar claims is discussed by Mark Liberman. See
http://158.130.17.5/~myl/languagelog/archives/003541.html
and
http://158.130.17.5/~myl/languagelog/archives/004694.html
, both accessed on October 5, 2009.

4
As noted by Mark Liberman,
http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/003551.html
, accessed September 16, 2009.

5
(Baron-Cohen, 2009), para. 5 and para. 22 respectively.

6
This section summarised from (Hines, 2004).

7
The mechanism and threshold of necessary testosterone, and the timing of the critical period, are different for the internal reproductive organs and the external genitalia.

8
For overview see (Morris, Jordan, & Breedlove, 2004).

9
A useful summary is provided by (Breedlove, Cooke, & Jordan, 1999).

10
In one species of bird, the African bush shrike, males have superior vocal control areas (that is, ‘larger nuclei, denser connections, more synapses,
etc
.’) even though the complexity of male and female songs is identical. Implication? ‘The link between song production and size of the vocal control nuclei may not be as simple as it first appeared.’ (De Vries, 2004), p. 1063.

11
See, for example, Mark Liberman’s discussion of Leonard Sax’s use of data on rat vision to draw conclusions about human gender difference and single-sex schooling (
http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/003473.html
).

12
(Hines, 2004), p. 82.

13
These include different timing, different physiological effects and different hormonal mechanisms. For example, while injecting testosterone into female rats soon after birth disrupts the estrous cycle (the rat version of the menstrual cycle), prenatal testosterone during the equivalent critical period in humans and other primates doesn’t have the same disrupting effect. Also, the role of testicular hormones converted to oestrogens in sexual differentiation may be different in rats and primates.

14
For example, Wallen argues that ‘the dominant rat and mouse models of sexual differentiation seem unlikely to apply to human sexual differentiation.’ (Wallen, 2005), p. 8.

15
See (Wallen, 1996). Referring to frequency of ‘threat’ behaviour such as baring teeth and staring.

16
For high doses of prenatal testosterone treatment, late in gestation. Earlier in gestation, no effect of the same high dose of testosterone on rough play is seen. In both rats and rhesus monkeys, prenatal androgen treatment also affects sexual behaviour, for example, degree of mounting. See (Wallen, 2005).

17
Early blocking using flutamide reduces the masculinisation of the genitalia and results in rough play and mounting intermediate between male and female behaviour. Late blocking reduces penis length, has no effect on rough play (even though in females it is testosterone
late
in gestation that appears to be important in influencing rough play) and actually
increases
mounting behaviour, which is opposite of what one would expect (Wallen, 2005).

18
Described in (De Vries, 2004).

19
Quoted in (Kolata, 1995), para. 22. Gorski adds that ‘nothing like it has been shown in humans.’

20
(De Vries, 2004), p. 1064.

21
For example, a book for parents published by the Gurian Institute claims that ‘[w]ithout the testosterone hits received
in utero
by her male counterparts, her brain continued on the female default path, providing specialized circuitry for
communication, emotional memory, and social connection.’ (Gurian Institute, Bering, & Goldberg, 2009), p. 32.

22
For valuable discussions of the problems with the orthodox view of the organisational/activational hypothesis, see (Breedlove, Cooke, & Jordan, 1999; Fausto-Sterling, 2000; Kaplan & Rogers, 2003; Moore, 2002; Rogers, 1999).

23
(Moore, 2002), pp. 65 and 66.

24
(Moore, Dou, & Juraska, 1992).

25
(Moore, 2002), p. 65.

26
(Barnett & Rivers, 2004), p. 200. For criticism of the lack of impact of this important work in the scientific community, see (Kaplan & Rogers, 2003), pp. 53–56.

27
(Geschwind & Behan, 1982).

28
Quoted in (Kolata, 1983), p. 1312.

29
Note, according to the model, extremely high levels of foetal testosterone will have detrimental effects on right-hemisphere development, and thus visuospatial function. As several researchers and commentators have pointed out, there is little in the way of evidence for the model, yet despite this it enjoys tremendous scientific and popular appeal and influence. In particular, Ruth Bleier has made an excellent critique of the model, and her criticisms and data have also been well summarised by Carol Tavris (Bleier, 1986; Tavris, 1992). For further critiques see also (Fausto-Sterling, 1985; Grossi, 2008; Nash & Grossi, 2007; Rogers, 1999). A comprehensive account of the data with regard to the Geschwind-Behan-Galaburda model, as it is more formally known, which proposes a link among foetal testosterone, left-handedness, giftedness and immune-system functioning, concluded that ‘[a]n overall evaluation of the model suggests that it is not well supported by empirical evidence and that in the case of several key theoretical areas, the evidence that does exist is inconsistent with the theory.’ (Bryden, McManus, & Bulman-Fleming, 1994), p. 103.

30
(Bleier, 1986).

31
(Gilmore et al., 2007), who found that, contrary to adults and older children, in neonates of both sexes the left hemisphere is larger than the right. See also (Nash & Grossi, 2007), p. 15, for discussion of lack of support for the model in studies of adult brains. This is in contrast to research with rats, which has demonstrated the relatively larger right hemisphere in males and the dependence of this on neonatal testosterone (Diamond, 1991). Note that Diamond’s summary of this work also points to the importance of experiential factors in hemisphere asymmetry. I do not know whether researchers have investigated whether the effect of neonatal testosterone on cerebral lateralisation occurs directly and/or via the different social experiences triggered by higher neonatal
testosterone – a possibility suggested by the work of Celia Moore described earlier.

32
As Baron-Cohen puts it, ‘the more you have of this special substance [testosterone, especially early in development], the more your brain is tuned into systems and the less your brain is tuned into emotional relationships.’ (Baron-Cohen, 2003), p. 105. It’s not clear that ‘extreme male’ is a good description of the profile of people with autism. You’ll remember from the first part of the book that empathy can be either cognitive (mind reading) or affective (sympathy). In seminal work, Simon Baron-Cohen showed that people with autism struggle with cognitive empathy, that is, they can’t seem to read other people’s intentions, beliefs and feelings with the intuitive ease that most of us enjoy (Baron-Cohen, 1997). Yet several strands of research now suggest that people with autism don’t lack
affective
empathy (Blair, 1996; Dziobek et al., 2008; Rogers et al., 2007). This is problematic for Baron-Cohen’s thesis because, as Levy has pointed out in (Levy, 2004), according to Baron-Cohen (see [Baron-Cohen, 2003], p. 120) the typical male profile is the precise opposite. Baron-Cohen suggests that men’s empathy disadvantage is greater for affective, rather than cognitive, empathy, the latter being vital for success in domains of predominantly male achievement. (Think how badly a poor mind reader would get on in business, politics or law.) It’s also worth noting the possibility that high foetal testosterone ‘reduces the threshold at which autistic symptoms manifest’, rather than causing autistic symptoms directly, as suggested by (Skuse, 2009), p. 33.