Development as Freedom (63 page)

9.
There is a similar issue relating to competing ways of judging individual advantage when our preferences and priorities diverge, and there is an inescapable “social choice problem” here too, which calls for a shared resolution (discussed in chapter 11).

10.
On this see my paper “Gender Inequality and Theories of Justice,” in
Women, Culture and Development: A Study of Human Capabilities
, edited by Martha Nussbaum and Jonathan Glover (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995). There are a number of other papers in this Nussbaum-Glover collection that bear on this issue.

11.
Aristotle,
The Nicomachean Ethics
, translated by D. Ross (Oxford: Oxford University Press, revised edition 1980), book 1, section 6, p. 7.

12.
On the relevance of freedom in the writings of pioneering political economists, see my
The Standard of Living
, edited by Geoffrey Hawthorn (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987).

13.
This applies to
Wealth of Nations (1776)
as well as to
The Theory of Moral Sentiments
(revised edition, 1790).

14.
This particular statement is from
The German Ideology
, jointly written with Friedrich Engels (1846); English translation in D. McLellan,
Karl Marx: Selected Writings
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977), p. 190. See also Marx’s
The Economic and Philosophical Manuscript of 1844
(1844) and
Critique of the Gotha Programme
(1875).

15.
John Stuart Mill,
On Liberty
(1859; republished: Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1974);
The Subjection of Women
(1869).

16.
Friedrich Hayek,
The Constitution of Liberty
(London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1960), p. 35.

17.
Peter Bauer,
Economic Analysis and Policy in Underdeveloped Countries
(Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1957), pp. 113–4. See also
Dissent on Development
(London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1971).

18.
W Arthur Lewis,
The Theory of Economic Growth
(London: Allen & Unwin, 1955), pp. 9–10, 420–1.

19.
Hayek,
The Constitution of Liberty
(1960), p. 31.

20.
These and related issues in “the evaluation of freedom” are discussed in my Kenneth Arrow Lectures included in
Freedom, Rationality and Social Choice
(forthcoming). Among the questions that are addressed there is the relation between freedom, on the one hand, and preferences and choices, on the other.

21.
On this and related issues, see Robert J. Barro and Jong-Wha Lee, “Losers and Winners in Economic Growth,” Working Paper 4341, National Bureau of Economic Research (1993); Xavier Sala-i-Martin, “Regional Cohesion: Evidence and Theories of Regional Growth and Convergence,” Discussion Paper 1075, CEPR, London, 1994; Robert J. Barro and Xavier Sala-i-Martin,
Economic Growth
(New York: McGraw-Hill, 1995); Robert J. Barro,
Getting It Right: Markets and Choices in a Free Society
(Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1996).

22.
Adam Smith,
An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations
(1776), republished, edited by R. H. Campbell and A. S. Skinner (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976), pp. 28–9.

23.
See Emma Rothschild, “Condorcet and Adam Smith on Education and Instruction,” in
Philosophers on Education
, edited by Amélie O. Rorty (London: Routledge, 1998).

24.
See, for example, Felton Earls and Maya Carlson, “Toward Sustainable Development for the American Family,”
Daedalus
122 (1993), and “Promoting Human Capability as an Alternative to Early Crime,” Harvard School of Public Health and Harvard Medical School, 1996.

25.
I have tried to discuss this issue in “Development: Which Way Now?”
Economic Journal
93 (1983), reprinted in
Resources, Values and Development
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1984; 1997), and also in
Commodities and Capabilities
(1985).

26.
To a considerable extent the annual
Human Development Reports
of the United Nations Development Programme, published since 1990, have been motivated by the need to take a broader view of this kind. My friend Mahbub ul Haq, who died last year, played a major leadership role in this, of which I and his other friends are most proud.

27.
Smith,
The Theory of Moral Sentiments
(1759; revised edition, 1790), republished, edited by D. D. Raphael and A. L. Macfie (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976), book 4, chapter 24, p. 188.