Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World (111 page)

29.
Sallier 2,9,1 = Anastasi Papyri 7,4,6, quoted in Erman (1894: 328).

30.
Anastasi Papyri 5, 10, 8ff., quoted in Erman (1894: 328).

31.
Ramsey (1987: 121-3). See Chapter 5, p. 209.

32.
Norman (1988: 257-63).

33.
Wilkinson (2000: 735).

34.
The Economist
, 9 March 1996, p. 4, cited in Graddol (1997: 37).

35.
Karlgren (1954). Its principles are set out succinctly in Norman (1988: 34-42).

36.
Pritchard (1969: 440).

37.
Wilkinson (2000: 723).

38.
Translated by Mote (1999: 156), from Lin Tianwei (1977):
Bei Song jiruo de sanzhong xin fenxi. Song shi yanjiu ji
9, 147-98.

39.
Gao (1991: 145).

40.
Ramsey (1987: 224).

1.
Rig Veda, vii. 103.

2.
ibid., x.34.

3.
Mahābhā⋅ya
, i.1.

4.
Ojha,
Bharatiya Prācīna Lipi Mālā
, 14, no. 6, attributed to
Cānakya-nīti.

5.
Caesar,
De Bello Gallico
, vi. 14.

6.
Martin Prechtel, personal communication.

7.
Plato,
Phaedrus
275A.

8.
Mahābhārata
, quoted by Kesavan (1992:3).

9.
Brough (1968:31).

10.
Deshpande (1993: 24), quoting
Mahābhā⋅ya
, i, p. 2.

11.
Patanjali,
Mahābhā⋅ya
on Panini, vi.3.109, trans. Deshpande (1993: 62).

12.
Manu, ii. 18-22.

13.
Deshpande (1993: 86).

14.
ibid.: 16;
Rājaśekhara, Kāvyamimāmsa
, iv.

15.
Strabo, xv.1.21.

16.
ibid., xv. 1.64.

17.
Milindapañha
, i.9.

18.
Fo-Kwo-Ki, xxxvi (in Beal 1884: lxxi).

19.
ibid., xl (in Beal 1884: part 1, p. lxxix).

20.
ibid., xl (in Beal 1884: part 1, p. lxxxiii).

21.
Coedès (1968: 81-2).

22.
Si-Yu-Ki, ii.9 (in Beal 1884: part 1, pp. 77-8).

23.
Gidwani(1994).

24.
Rig Veda, ii.20.7.

25.
Chatterji (1966: 78).

26.
Si-Yu-Ki, x.9-11 (in Beal 1884: part 2, pp. 204-8).

27.
Pañcatantra
, v. 31.

28.
Keith Taylor, in Tarling (1999: 195).

29.
Kamara, Pōdoukē
and
Sōpatma
, ‘lying in a row’, are quoted in the first century AD
Periplous of the Erythraean Sea
(ch. 60). Of these, the first two are presumably on the delta of the Kaveri river and at Puducherry (better known as Pondicherry).

30.
Yule and Burnell (1986: 456): ‘It is a saying in Goozerat,—"Who goes to Java Never returns. If by chance he return, Then for two generations to live upon, Money enough he brings back Ršs Mšlš, ii.82 (1878 edn: 418).

31.
Majumdar (1975:21).

32.
Coedès (1968: 26-7, 36, 275).

33.
ibid.: 37, 276.

34.
Majumdar (1975: 13).

35.
ibid.: 19-20.

36.
ibid.: 48.

37.
Mahābhārata, Āranyakaparva
, 173; Majumdar (1975: 25-7).

38.
Coedès (1968: 369).

39.
Fo-Kwo-Ki, xl (in Beal 1884: part 1, p. lxxxi).

40.
Coedès (1968: 17); Bechert and Gombrich (1984: 147).

41.
Ramsay (1987: 121-4).

42.
For the details of the Tibetan script and its origin, I have been dependent on Beyer (1992:40-50).

43.
There is some evidence that Tibetans could write earlier than this. There are extant contemporary annals of the period 650 to 747, and for the year 655 we find: The King stayed at
Mer-khe
, and the prime minister
Ston-tsan
wrote the text of his commands to
Ngor-ti.

In fact the introduction of the script is traditionally (i.e. in a history from the fourteenth century) credited to a Tibetan scholar and government minister, Thon-mi Anui-bu, said to have been sent on a mission to India in the mid-seventh century. But Thon-mi may have been an invented figure, since he is omitted from genuinely ancient records of Tibet found in central Asia, while the earliest grammatical works on Tibetan are also attributed to him.

44.
Beyer (1992: 36-7).

45.
As conjectured in van Leur (1955: 113) and discussed in Hall (1981: 231-3).

46.
Basham (1967:491).

47.
Rangarajan (1992: 18-21).

48.
Si-Yu-Ki, ix (in Beal 1884: part 2, pp. 171-2).

1.
Old Oligarch, Athenian Constitution, ii.8:
kaì hoi mèn Héllēnes idíāi māllon kaì ph
bar;nēi kaì diaítēi kai skh
mati khrõbar;ntai, Athēnaĩoi dè kekraménēi ex hapántōn tõbar;n Hellébar;nōn kaì barbárōn.

2.
Herodotus, viii.144 (quoted in the epigraph to this chapter).

3.
ibid., iv. 183.4. They lived along the Red Sea coast, according to Strabo, xvii.1.2.

4.
Aeschylus,
Agamemnon
, 1050-1.

5.
Thucydides, ii.35-46.

6.
tèbar;n pólin pábar;san tŋbar;s Helládos paídeusin eĩnai:
Thucydides, ii.41.

7.
Menander, fragment 72, ed. Kock.

8.
Heraclitus, fragment 119.

9.
Aristophanes,
Knights
, 1169.

10.
Hesiod,
Catalogues of Women
(Loeb edn, fr. 4).

11.
Thucydides, iii.38.4.

12.
Buck (1955: 10-14).

13.
Strabo, vi.1.2.

14.
Segs 30.1664 and 20.326 (Greek-Aramaic Buddhist text), Schlumberger et al. (1958). See Chapter 5, ‘The character of Sanskrit’, p. 187, and Chapter 3, ‘Aramaic—the desert song: Interlingua of western Asia’, p. 84.

15.
Salomon (1998: 265-7).
Hēliodōros
comes out as
Heliodora
-, but
Antialkidas
as
Amtalikita
.- Very much in the Aśoka tradition, it contains gratuitous urgings to Buddhist virtue. See Chapter 5, ‘Outsiders’ views’, p. 192.

16.
Ghirshman (1954: 229-30).

17.
Mango (1980: ch. 1).

18.
Plutarch,
Mark Antony
, xxvii.

19.
Cambridge Ancient History
, vol. vii.1
²
, p. 180.

20.
Drew-Bear et al. (1999).

21.
Strabo, iv.1.5.

22.
Plautus,
Epidicus
, iii.3.29.

23.
Polybius,
Histories
, iii.59.

24.
Vergil,
Aeneid
, vi.847-53.

25.
pergraecari est epulis et potationibus inservire:
in the dictionary of Sextus Pomponius Festus of the late second century AD. The word is common in Plautus, the great adapter of Greek plays for Roman audiences in the second century BC.

26.
Sawyer (1999: 37).

27.
ibid.: 35.

28.
The source is an Athenian sophist, Philostratus, whose
Life of Apollonius of Tyana
was commissioned at the end of the second century AD by the wife of the Roman emperor Septimius Severus. This is a work of devotional literature, and so its accuracy has been questioned; but Woodcock (1966: 130) argues that archaeology shows the author was in fact well informed about details of this land so remote from contemporary Rome and the Mediterranean.

29.
Wiesehöfer (2001: 122).

30.
ibid.: 155.

31.
Itinerarium Aetheriae
(ed. H. Pétré, Paris, 1948), xlvii.3-4 (quoted in Mango 1980: 19).

32.
Mango (1980: 25).

33.
De Thematibus
, Introduction, Pertusi edn, 1952, quoted in Horrocks (1997:150).

34.
Procopius,
Secret History
, xviii.20-21.

35.
Third Part of the Ecclesiastical History of John Bishop of Ephesus
, trans. R. Payne Smith. Oxford, 1860, pp. 423-4 (quoted in Mango 1980: 24).

36.
P. Lemerle,
La Chronique improprement dite de Monemvasie
, in
Revue des etudes byzantines
, xxi (1963), pp. 9-10 (quoted in Mango 1980: 24). The Kafirs were perhaps Muslim converts; the Thracēsians were not Thracians, but from the Thracēsian theme, in the west of Anatolia.

37.
Leo VI,
Tactica
, in
Patrologia Graeca
, ed. J. P. Migne, cvii, 969A (quoted in Mango 1980: 28).

1.
Herodotus, ii.33, iv.49. The Cynetes, aka Cynesians, may have been correctly placed just beyond the Pillars of Hercules, since Strabo, iii.1.4, calls this area, the modern Algarve, Cuneus—though he thought that it was named in Latin after its wedge-like shape.

2.
Jacoby (1923: no. 70, fr. 30).

3.
Strabo, vii.3.8; Arrian, i.4.6-8.

4.
Táin Bo Cúailnge
(Book of Leinster, 2nd Recension), 11. 4733-6, trans. Cecile O’ Rahilly:
mono tháeth in fhirmimintni cona frossaib rétland for dunignúis in talman nó mani thí in fharrgi eithrech ochargorm for tulmóing in bethad nó mani máe in talam…

5.
Caesar,
De Bello Gallico
, i.l.