India After Independence: 1947-2000 (86 page)

4
. Raj Krishna, ‘Small Farmers Development,’
EPW,
26 May 1979, p.913.

5
. G.S. Bhalla and G.K. Chadha, ‘Green Revolution and the Small Peasant—A Study of Income Distribution in Punjab Agriculture,’
EPW,
15 and 22 May 1982.

6
.
Ladejinsky Papers,
pp.436-440

7
. See C.H. Hanumantha Rao, ‘Agriculture: Policy and Performance,’ in Bimal Jalan, ed.,
The Indian Economy: Problems and Prospects,
New Delhi, 1992, pp.128-29.

8. See Daniel Thomer,
The Shaping of Modern India,
pp.202 ff. and 224 ff.

9
. C.H. Hanumantha Rao,
op.cit.,
129-30. Emphasis mine.

10
. M.S. Swaminathan, ‘Growth and Sustainability,’
Frontline,
9-22 August 1997.

1
. The best collection of essays on the subject remains A.R. Desai, ed.,
Agrarian Struggles in India after Independence,
Delhi, 1986.

2
. P. Sundarayya,
Telangana People’s Struggle and Its Lessons,
Communist Party of India (Marxist), Calcutta, 1972, pp.115-6, 239-40, and 424.

3
. Interview with Baba Bachhitar Singh, cited in Mridula Mukherjee, ‘Communists and Peasants in Punjab: A Focus on the Muzara Movement in Patiala, 1937-53,’ in Bipan Chandra, ed.,
The Indian Left: Critical Appraisals,
New Delhi, 1983.

4
. See Mridula Mukherjee, ‘Peasant Resistance and Peasant Consciousness in Colonial India: “Subalterns” and Beyond,’
EPW,
1988, October 8 and 15.

5
. See Staffan Lindberg, ‘New Farmers’ Movements in India as Structural Response and Collective Identity Formation: The Cases of the Shetkari Sangathana and the BKU,’ in Tom Brass, ed.,
New Farmers’ Movements in India,
Ilford, 1995, pp.95-125 and other articles in this volume for a consideration of this issue.

1
. Gandhi,
CW
, Vol.76, p.402.

1
. For these, see Bipan Chandra, et al,
India’s Struggle for Independence, 1857-1947,
Viking 1998, Penguin 1989, chapter 18.

2
. For a useful overview of Dalit politics, especially from 1957 onwards, see V. Suresh, ‘The Dalit Movement in India,’ in T.V. Sathyamurthy,
Social Change and Political Discourse in India,
Volume 3, Region, Religion, Caste, Gender, and Culture in Contemporary India, 1996, pp.355-87.

3
. See Jean Dreze and Amartya Sen,
India: Economic Development and Social Opportunity,
Delhi, 1995, p.97.

4
.
Ibid.,
table 6.1, p.112.

5
. For an interesting recent attempt to argue for Dalit-BC unity, especially in the context of the attempt to forge links with the Shetkari Sangathana in Maharashtra, see Gail Omvedt, ‘The Anti-Caste Movement and the Discourse of Power,’ in T.V. Sathyamurthy,
op. cit.,
pp.334-54, and Gail Omvedt, ‘We Want the Return of Our Sweat: The New Peasant Movement in India and the Formation of a New Agricultural Policy,’ in Tom Brass, ed.,
New Farmers’ Movements in India,
Ilford, 1995, pp.126-64.

1
. Based on Mridula Mukherjee’s interview with Prof Usha Mehta.

2
. The most comprehensive account of women’s movements is to be found in Radha Kumar,
The History of Doing,
New Delhi, 1993, and I have used it extensively.

3
. See, for example, Mridula Mukherjee, ‘Interview with Sushila Chain,’ in
Manushi.

4
. For a detailed account of this very interesting movement, see Ramachandra Guha,
The Unquiet Woods: Ecological Change and Peasant Resistance in the Himalaya,
Delhi, 1989.

5
. For a detailed study of the agitations against dowry, the Muslim Women’s Bill and sati, see Rajni Palriwala and Indu Agnihotri, ‘Tradition, the Family and the State: Politics of The Contemporary Women’s Movement,’ in T.Y. Sathyamurthy, ed., Social Change and Political Discourse in India, Vol. 3,
Region, Religon, Caste, Gender and Culture in Contemporary India,
Delhi, 1996, pp.503-32.

6
. For the data and much of the conclusions in this and the following paragraphss, I have relied greatly on the pathbreaking work of Jean Dreze and Amartya K. Sen. See, for example, their
India: Economic Development and Social Opportunity,
Delhi, 1995.

1
. For the broad theoretical framework adopted in this chapter some of the works I have been most influenced by are listed below. Bipan Chandra,
Indian National Movement, The Long Term Dynamic,
New Delhi, 1988, first delivered as the Presidential Address, Indian History Congress, 1985, Amritsar, Ralph Miliband,
Marxism and Politics,
1977, Ernesto Laclau,
Politics and Ideology in Marxist Theory,
London, 1977, Nicos Poulantzas,
Classes in Contemporary Capitalism,
London, 1975 and the recent writings of Mohit Sen
the leading left intellectual who has been closely associated with left politics for nearly half a century.

2
. See for example, Peter Evans,
Dependent Development: The Alliance of Multinational, State and Local Capital in Brazil,
Princeton, 1979, pp. 31-34, 52 and Gary Gereffi and Donald Wyman, ‘Development Strategies in Latin America and East Asia,’ 1985, mimeo.

3
. See for example Bipan Chandra,
Nationalism and Colonialism in Modern India,
New Delhi, 1979, and ‘The Colonial Legacy,’ in Bimal Jalan, ed.,
The Indian Economy: Problems and Prospects,
New Delhi, 1992; K.N. Raj, ‘The Politics and Economics of Intermediate Regimes,’
EPW,
7 July 1973; Sudipto Mundle ‘State Character and Economic Policy,’
Social Scientist..
May 1974; Pranab Bardhan,
The Political Economy of Development in India,
Delhi, 1998 (expanded edition) and Aditya Mukherjee and Mridula Mukherjee, ‘Imperialism and the Growth of Indian Capitalism in the Twentieth Century,’
EPW,
12 March 1988.

4
. See for example Aditya Mukherjee, ‘The Indian Capitalist Class: Aspects of its Economic, Political and Ideological Development in the Colonial Period,’ in S. Bhattacharya and Romila Thapar, eds.,
Situating Indian History,
Delhi, 1986 and
Imperialism, Nationalism and the Development of Indian Capitalism: The Making of the Indian Capitalist Class,
New Delhi, (forthcoming).

5
. Prabhat Patnaik, ‘Political Strategies of Economic Development,’ in Partha Chatterjee, ed.,
Wages of Freedom: Fifty Years of the Indian Nation-State,
Delhi, 1998, pp. 58-59. Emphasis mine.

6
. F.H. Cordoso, ‘Social Consequences of Globalisation,’ Lecture at India International Centre, New Delhi, 27 January 1996.

7
. Amartya Sen, ‘Social Commitment and Democracy,’
New Thinking Communist,
1 November 1998.

8
. Bipan Chandra, ‘The Real Danger of Foreign Domination: Peripheralization’, in his
Essays on Contemporary India,
Revised edition, New Delhi, 1999.

1
. C. Thomas in Geeti Sen, ed.,
Receiving India,
New Delhi, 1993, p.266.

2
. S. Gopal,
Jawaharlal Nehru—A Biography,
Vol.3, London, 1984, p.301.

3
. Mohit Sen, ‘Entering the Fiftieth Year’,
New Thinking Communist,
15 August 1996, p.2.

4
. Quoted in Zareer Masani,
Indira Gandhi—A Biography,
London, 1975, p.299.

5
. W.H. Morris-Jones,
Politics Mainly Indian,
Bombay, 1978, p.131.

6
. Myron Weiner,
The Politics of Scarcity,
Bombay, 1963, p.216.

7
. Joan V. Bondurant,
Conquest of Violence: The Gandhian Philosophy of Conflict,
Revised Edition, Berkeley, USA, 1971, pp.viii-ix.

8
. Francine R. Frankel,
India’s Political Economy,
1947-1977, Delhi, 1978, p.4.

9
.
Ibid.

10
.
Ibid.,
pp.4-6.

11
. Nehru,
Speeches,
Vol.3, p.96.

12
. India Development Report 1999-2000, ed., Kirit S. Parikh, New Delhi, 1999, p.5. Most of the statistics in this and the next section are taken from this work, Economic Survey 1998-99, UNDP’s
Human Development Report 1999,
and National Council of Applied Economic Research’s
India Human Development Report,
1999.

1. Krishan Bhatia,
The Ordeal of Nationhood,
New York, 1971.

2. Rajni Kothari,
Politics in India,
New Delhi, 1970.

3. Achin Vanaik,
The Painful Transition: Bourgeois Democracy in India,
London, 1990.

4. Francine R. Frankel,
India’s Political Economy,
1947-1977, Delhi, 1978.

5. L.I. Rudolph and S.H. Rudolph,
In Pursuit of Lakshmi: The Political Economy of the Indian State,
Bombay, 1987.

6. Atul Kohli, ed.,
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Princeton, 1988.

7. Shashi Tharoor,
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New Delhi, 1997.

8. Sunil Khilnani,
The Idea of India,
London, 1997.

9. Paul R. Brass,
The Politics of India Since Independence,
Indian edition, New Delhi, 1992.

10. W.H. Morris-Jones,
Politics Mainly Indian,
New Delhi, 1978.

11. W.H. Morris-Jones,
The Government and Politics of India,
Wistow, Huntingdon, 1987 edition.

12. Robert L. Hardgrave, Jr. and Stanley A. Kochanek,
India: Government and Politics in a Developing Nation,
Fifth edition, San Diego, 1993.

13. Daniel Thorner,
The Shaping of Modern India,
Delhi, 1980.

14. Yogendra Singh,
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New Delhi, 1993.

15. Bipan Chandra,
Essays On Contemporary India,
Revised edition, New Delhi, 1999.

16. Upendra Baxi and Bhikhu Parekh, eds.,
Crisis and Change in Contemporary India,
New Delhi, 1995.

17. Myron Weiner,
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New Delhi, 1989.

18. Partha Chatterjee, ed.,
Wages of Freedom: Fifty Years of the Indian Nation-State,
Delhi, 1998.

19. Jean Dreze and Amartya Sen,
India: Economic Development and Social Opportunity,
Delhi, 1996.

20. Vijay Joshi and I.M.D. Little,
India: Macroeconomics and Political Economy 1964-1991,
Washington, 1994.

21. Bimal Jalan, ed.,
The Indian Economy: Problems and Prospects,
New Delhi, 1992.

22. E.J. Hobsbawm,
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Harmondsworth, 1994.

23. Hiranmay Karlekar,
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Delhi, 1998.

1. Bipan Chandra, (i)
Essays on Colonialism,
New Delhi, 1999. (ii)
Nationalism and Colonialism in Modern India,
New Delhi, 1979. (iii) ‘The Colonial Legacy,’ in Bimal Jalan, ed.,
The Indian Economy: Problems and Prospects,
New Delhi, 1992. (iv)
Modern India,
a textbook, New Delhi, 1990.

2. Aditya Mukherjee and Mridula Mukherjee, ‘Imperialism and the Growth of Indian Capitalism in Twentieth Century,’ Economic and Political Weekly (hereafter EPW), 12 March 1988, Reprinted in
Capitalist Development: Critical Essays,
ed., Ghanshyam Shah, Bombay, 1990.

3. Irfan Habib, ‘Colonialization of Indian Economy,’
Social Scientist,
March 1975.

4. Angus Maddison,
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London, 1971.

5. V.B. Singh,
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Bombay, 1965.

6. R. Palme Dutt,
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Bombay, 1949.

7. A.R. Desai,
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Bombay, 1959.

1. Bipan Chandra, et. al.,
India’s Struggle for Independence 1857-1947,
New Delhi, 1988.

2. Bipan Chandra, (i)
Epic Struggle,
New Delhi, (ii)
Indian National Movement: The Long-term Dynamics,
New Delhi, 1988. (iii)
Essays in Indian Nationalism,
New Delhi, 1993.

3. W.H. Morris-Jones,
The Government and Politics of India,
Wistow, England, 1987 edition.

1. B. Shiva Rao, ed.,
The Framing of India’s Constitution: A Study,
New Delhi, 1968.

2. Vidya Dhar Mahajan,
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New Delhi, 17th edition, 1995.

3. V. P. Menon,
The Transfer of Power in India,
Princeton, 1957.

4. Granville Austin,
The Indian Constitution: Cornerstone of A Nation,
Oxford 1966.

5. Subhash C. Kashyap, ‘The Framing of the Constitution and the Process of Institution Building,’ in
A Centenary History of The Indian National Congress,
General Editor, B.N. Pande, Vol.IV, New Delhi 1990.

6. W.H.Morris-Jones,
The Government and Politics of India,
New York, 1967, First published, London, 1964.

7. S.C. Kashyap,
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New Delhi, 1994.

8. S.K.Chaube,
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1973.

9. D.D.Basu,
Introduction to the Constitution of India,
New Delhi, 8th edition, 1984.

10. M.V. Pylee,
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New Delhi, 4th edition, 1984.

11. David Potter,
India’s Political Administrators
1918-83, Oxford, 1986.

1. Sarvepalli Gopal,
Jawaharlal Nehru—A Biography,
Vol.2 (1947-1956), London and Delhi, 1979.

2. Rajmohan Gandhi,
Patel: A Life,
Ahmedabad, 1990.

3. V. P. Menon,
Integration of the Indian States,
Madras, 1985, reprint 1985.

4. Sisir K. Gupta,
Kashmir: A Study in Indian-Pakistan Relations,
London, 1967.

5. P. Mishra, ‘Consolidation of Independence: Challenge and Response,’
A Centenary History of the Indian National Congress,
General Editor, B.N. Pande, Vol.IV, ed., Iqbal Narain, New Delhi, 1990.

1. Bipan Chandra, ‘Indian Nationalism—Redefined,’ and ‘Will Indian Nation Hold,’ in Bipan Chandra,
Essays on Contemporary India,
New Delhi, 1993.

2. Boris I. Kluev,
India: National and Language Problem,
New Delhi, 1981.

3. S. Mohan Kumaramangalam,
India’s Language Crisis,
Madras, 1965.

4. Hugh Tinker, ‘Is There an Indian Nation,’ in Philip Mason, ed.,
India and Ceylon: Unity and Diversity,
London, 1967.

5. Jyotirindra Das Gupta,
Language Conflict and National Development: Group Politics and National Language Policy in India,
Berkeley and Bombay, 1970.

6. Nirmal Kumar Bose, ‘Problems of National Integration,’
Science and Culture,
Vol.30, no.4, April 1964.

7. Zoya Hasan, ‘Introduction: State and Identity in Modern India,’ in Zoya Hasan, S.N. Jha, Rasheeduddin Khan, eds.,
The State, Political Processes and Identity,
New Delhi, 1989.

8. Rajni Kothari,
Politics in India,
Chapter VIII, New Delhi, 1970.

1. Jolly Mohan Kaul,
Problems of National Integration,
New Delhi, 1963.

2. Boris I. Kluev,
India: National and Language Problem,
New Delhi, 1981.

3. Joseph E. Schwartzberg, ‘Factors in the Linguistic Reorganization of India,’ in Paul Wallace, ed.,
Region and Nation in India,
New Delhi, 1985.

4. Ather Farouqi, ‘The Emerging Dilemma of the Urdu Press in India,’
South Asia,
Vol.XVIII, no.2, 1995.

5. Ralph Russell, ‘Urdu in India Since Independence,’
EPW,
9 January 1999.

1. Verrier Elwin, (i)
A Philosophy for NEFA,
Shillong, 1959. (ii)
The Tribal World of Verrier Elwin,
Bombay, 1964.

2. Christoph von Furer-Haimendorf (i) ‘The Position of the Tribal Populations in Modern India,’ in Philip Mason, ed.,
India and Ceylon: Unity and Diversity,
London, 1967. (ii) ‘The Changing Position of Tribal Population in India,’ in D. Taylor and M. Yapp,
Political Identity in South Asia,
London, 1979.

3. K.S. Singh, ed.,
Tribal Movements in India,
2 Vols, New Delhi, 1982.

4. Stuart Corbridge, ‘The Ideology of Tribal Economy and Society: Politics in the Jharkhand, 1950-1980,’
Modern Asian Studies,
Vol.22, no.1, 1988.

5. Nirmal Kumar Bose, (i) ‘Change in Tribal Culture Before and After Independence,’
Man in India,
Vol.44, no.1, Jan.-March 1964. (ii) ‘Integration of Tribes in Andhra Pradesh,’
Man in India,
Vol.44, no.2, April-June 1964.

6. Jolly M. Kaul,
Problems of National Integration,
New Delhi, 1963.

7. Urmila Phadnis,
Ethnicity and Nation-Building in South Asia,
New Delhi, 1989.

8. B.K. Roy-Burman,
Indigenous and Tribal Peoples,
New Delhi, 1994.

1. Balveer Arora and Douglas V. Verney,
Multiple Identities in a Single State,
Delhi, 1993.

2. N. Mukerji and Balveer Arora,
Federalism in India,
New Delhi, 1991.

3. C.N. Vakil, ‘National Integration,’ in J.C. Daruvala, ed.,
Tensions in Economic Development in South East Asia,
Bombay, 1961.

4. Ashok Mathur, ‘The Character of Industrialization in the Indian Economy,’ unpublished paper, JNU, New Delhi, May 1998.

5. Jolly M. Kaul,
Problems of National Integration,
New Delhi, 1963.

6. Myron Weiner,
Sons of the Soil: Migration and Ethnic Conflict in India,
Princeton, 1978.

7. Dipankar Gupta,
Nationalism in a Metropolis: The Shiv Sena in Bombay,
New Delhi, 1982.

1. S. Gopal,
Jawaharlal Nehru—A Biography,
Vols.2 and 3, London and Delhi, 1979 and 1984.

2. Bipan Chandra, ‘Jawaharlal Nehru in Historical Perspective,’ and ‘Nehru and Communalism,’ in Bipan Chandra,
Ideology and Politics in Modern India,
New Delhi, 1994.

3. B.R. Nanda,
Jawaharhal Nehru: Rebel and Statesman,
Delhi, 1995.

4. B.R. Nanda, P.C. Joshi and Raj Krishna,
Gandhi and Nehru,
Delhi, 1979.

5. Sudipto Kaviraj, ‘Apparent Paradoxes of Jawaharlal Nehru,’
Mainstream,
15 November-13 December 1980.

6. Geoffrey Tyson,
Nehru: The Years of Power,
London, 1966.

7. Bagendu Ganguli and Mira Ganguly, ‘Electoral Politics and Partisan Choice,’
A Centenary History of the Indian National Congress,
General Editor, B.N. Pande, Vol.IV, ed., Iqbal Narain, New Delhi, 1990.

8. Bimal Prasad,
Gandhi, Nehru and J.P.: Studies in Leadership,
Delhi, 1985.

9. E.M.S. Namboodiripad,
Economics and Politics of India’s Socialist Pattern,
New Delhi, 1966.

10. W.H. Morris-Jones,
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London, 1957.

11. B.N. Pande, General Editor,
A Centenary History of the Indian National Congress,
Vol.IV, ed., Iqbal Narain, New Delhi, 1990.

1. V. P.Dutt,
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New Delhi, 1990.

2. K.Subrahmanyam, ‘Evolution of Indian Defence Policy (1947-1964),’ in B.N. Pande, General Editor,
A Centenary History of The Indian National Congress.,
Vol.IV
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3. B.R.Nanda, ed.,
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4. Rikhi Jaipal, ‘Ideas and Issues in Indian Foreign Policy,’ in B.N. Pande, ed.,
A Centenary History.

5. V. P. Dutt,
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6. A.K. Damodaran, ‘Foreign Policy in Action,’ in B.N. Pande, ed.,
A Centenary History.

7. S. Gopal,
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Volumes 2 and 3, London, 1979 and 1984.

8. Neville George Anthony Maxwell,
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London, 1970.

9. M.S. Rajan,
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New York, 1964.

10. W. Norman Brown,
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Cambridge, Massachusets, 1972.

11. Sisir K. Gupta,
Kashmir: A Study in Indo-Pak Relations,
Bombay, 1966.

1. Rajni Kothari, (i) ‘The Congress ‘System’ in India,’
Asian Survey,
Vol.IV, no. 12, December 1964. (ii)
Politics in India,
Chapter V, New Delhi, 1970.

2. S. Gopal,
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Vols.2 and 3, London and Delhi, 1979 and 1984.

3. Stanley A. Kochanek,
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Princeton, 1968.

4. V.M. Siriskar and L. Fernandes,
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Meerut, 1984.

5. All India Congress Committee,
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General Editor, B.N. Pande, Vol.IV, ed., Iqbal Narain, New Delhi, 1990.

6. W.H. Morris-Jones, (i) ‘Congress, Dead or Alive,’
Pacific Affairs,
Vol.42, No.2, 1969. (ii) ‘The Indian Congress Party: a Dilemma of Dominance,’ in
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Bombay, 1978. Also in
Modern Asian Studies,
Vol.I, no.2, April 1967. (iii)
The Government and Politics of India,
Chapter 5, Wistow, England, 1987 edition.

1. Myron Weiner,
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Princeton, 1957, Delhi, 1990.

2. Lewis P. Fickett, Jr., (i)
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