Infamy (41 page)

On June 6:
JAH
, p. 277.

“All three companies”:
Asahina,
Just Americans
, p. 106.

The 442nd Combat Regiment:
GoForBroke.org
. During World War II, an infantry battalion constituted four companies: three rifle companies and a heavy weaponry company. Three battalions constituted a regiment and three regiments constituted a division. The 442nd Regimental Combat Team, meant to be a self-contained fighting force, a segregated one with white officers and Japanese American enlisted men, included the 552nd, 232nd Combat Engineer Company, 206th Army Ground Force Band, Anti-tank Company, Cannon Company, medical detachment, headquarters company, and two infantry battalions, one of them the One Hundredth Battalion.

On July 11:
“George Saito,”
http://www.youtube.com/watch?=s08paiTodq8
, accessed November 2, 2010.

In September of:
Asahina,
Just Americans
, p. 144.

It was not:
Ibid.

“Banzai!”:
Banzai
means literally “a thousand years of life.” In Japan, it was used as a tribute to the emperor. The phrase
Tennuoheiko Banzai
, often used by Imperial Japanese soldiers in the Pacific, can be translated as “Long live the emperor.”

Next the Nisei:
Asahina,
Just Americans
, p. 158.

After the Bruyères:
Ibid., p. 161; Sterner,
Go for Broke
, p. 174; Crost,
Honor by Fire
, p. 184.

The article did:
Asahina,
Just Americans
, p. 193. Robert Asahina, in his formidable and impressively researched book
Just Americans: How Japanese Americans Won a War at Home and Abroad
, identified Lieutenant C. O. Barry as actually in the medical attachment of the 141st Regiment of the Thirty-Sixth Division.

After the press:
Asahina,
Just Americans
, p. 189. The debate over whether General John Dahlquist should have bypassed Biffontaine and was using Nisei as “cannon fodder” has continued through the decades. At least one 442nd officer, a lieutenant colonel named Gordon Singles, met Dahlquist years later and refused to shake his hand. There was never any question about Dahlquist’s personal courage. He went to the front line, within forty yards of a German machine-gun emplacement, and one of his staff, Lieutenant Welles Lewis, son of the writer Sinclair Lewis, was killed there, his blood splattering Dahlquist. Later in the last year of the war, Dahlquist was formally and publicly reprimanded by General Eisenhower because he had shaken hands and had lunch with the Nazis’ Field Marshal Hermann Goering, who was captured near Munich by his division.

On Monday, December 18:
Peter Irons,
Justice at War: The Story of the Japanese American Internment Cases
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), p. 325 et al.

In dissent, Justice:
Fred T. Korematsu Institute for Civil Rights and Education, “Ex Parte Mitsuye Endo,”
http://korematsuinstitute.org/institute/aboutfred/internmentcases/ex-parte-mitsuye-endo/
.

From Minneapolis:
Oppenheim,
Dear Miss Breed
, p. 235.

On the night:
JAH
, p. 167; Tamura,
Nisei Soldiers Break Their Silence
, p. 143 et al.

“To those of Hood River”:
Tamura,
Nisei Soldiers Break Their Silence
, p. 41.

Hood River County:
Ibid., p. 147 et al.

Anti-Japanese racism:
Ibid., p. 170.

Stanley Hayami’s:
HAY, p. 148 et al.

At 5:00 a.m.:
Sterner,
Go for Broke
, p. 110 et al.

Two weeks after:
Ibid., p. 151.

When Private Shiro Kashino:
Vince Matsudaira,
Kash: The Life and Legacy of Shiro Kashino
, KIRO-TV, Seattle, 2012.

One of the survivors:
Solly Ganor,
Light One Candle: A Survivor’s Tale from Lithuania to Jerusalem
(New York: Kodansha International, 1995), p. 292 et al.

One of them:
HAY, p. 174 et al.

CHAPTER 10

Sergeant Ben Kuroki:
Martin,
Boy from Nebraska
, p. 188.

The 442nd:
Sterner,
Go for Broke
, p. 144; Crost,
Honor by Fire
, p. 312.

Months earlier, on December 15:
Weglyn,
Years of Infamy
, p. 192.

“There are still 100”:
Asahina,
Just Americans
, p. 229.

When Governor Warren:
PJ
, p. 217.

their resettlement programs:
Arthur A. Hansen,
REgenerations Oral History Project: Rebuilding Japanese-Americans Families, Communities, and Civil Rights in the Resettlement Era— Resettlement: A Neglected Link in Japanese America’s Narrative Chain
, Japanese American National Museum, 1997. Web, accessed February 22, 2012, p. xix.

By the beginning:
Nigel Hamilton,
The Mantle of Command: FDR at War, 1941–1942
(New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2014), p. 486; Robinson, p. 261.

More than 2,000:
In 1996, in a class action lawsuit brought by Peruvians, the United States admitted wrongdoing and paid $5,000 to each surviving Latin American detainee.

“I’m not going to worry”:
For more information on Alice Nitta, see
JapaneseRelocation.org
.

Jeanne Wakatsuki, who:
Houston and Houston,
Farewell to Manzanar
, p. 121.

There were also:
Rogers and Bartlit,
Silent Voices of World War II
, p. 139.

At Tule Lake:
Ibid., p. 315.

There were 5,461:
Weglyn,
Years of Infamy
, p. 247.

What happened next:
Ibid.

The Nichiren:
www.archivetoday/SKEob
; HOS, p. 436.

One Nisei, John Saito:
PJ
, p. 241.

Mutsuo Hashiguchi:
James Arimo,
Mitsuko Hashiguchi Interview Segment 62
, DOH, July 28, 1998.

Another Washington resident:
Robinson,
A Tragedy of Democracy
, p. 257.

There were also hundreds:
Asahina,
Just Americans
, p. 230 et al.

In Placer County:
Robinson,
A Tragedy of Democracy
, p. 260.

Walt Hayami:
HAY, p. 180.

Heisuke and Mitsuno:
Gruenewald,
Looking Like the Enemy
, p. 194.

Still, the Matsudas:
Ibid., p. 197.

When Yoneichi:
Ibid., p. 198.

As the American:
Tamura,
Nisei Soldiers Break Their Silence
, p. 172.

There were rumors:
Ibid., p. 165.

Attitudes did change:
Ibid., p. 167.

There were no:
HOS, p. 394.

Kiyoko Nomura:
Michael Patrick Rowan, “All Along the Watchtowers: Photographs of Manzanar at Gunpoint, Framed in Barbed Wire,” research paper for City College of San Francisco Honors Program. Available online at
voiceslikeyours.com/pdfs/MRowan_Watchtowers.pdf
.

“I learned that”:
Drinnon,
Keeper of Concentration Camps
, p. 128.

In the town of Westminster:
Sterner,
Go for Broke
, p. 101.

The Masuda family:
Crost,
Honor by Fire
, p. 153.

On his way home:
Asahina,
Just Americans
, p. 229.

That story got all:
Robinson,
A Tragedy of Democracy
, p. 276.

“Coming home”:
PJ
, p. 259 et al.

The Najima family:
Megan Asaka, DENSHO,
Irene Najima Interview Segment 13
, DOH, August 4, 2008. Web, accessed December 1, 2010.

Makabe, whose father:
John Tateishi,
And Justice for All: An Oral History of the Japanese American Detention Camps
(New York: Random House, 1984), p. 250 et al.

EPILOGUE

There were, in fact:
Robinson,
A Tragedy of Democracy
, p. 258.

“In sum”:
PJ
, p. 459.

Almost fifty years:
“Understanding the Civil Liberties Act of 1988,” Anti-Defamation League, 2013,
http://www.adl.org/assets/pdf/education-outreach/Understanding-the-Civil-Liberties-Act-of-1988.pdf
.

Wayne Collins, who had represented:
Robinson,
A Tragedy of Democracy
, p. 258.

Collins also represented:
Daniels, Taylor, and Kitano,
Relocation to Redress
, p. 142.

Collins died:
Irons,
Justice at War
, p. 368 et al.

Minoru Kiyota:
Minoru Kiyota,
Beyond Loyalty: The Story of a Kibei
(Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1997), p. 155.

In memoirs, interviews:
PJ
, p. 18.

In 1982, eight years:
http://korematsuinstitute.org/institute/aboutfred/
.

On May 20, 2011:
The Supreme Court hearing had originally been scheduled for May 1, 1944, but was postponed when the solicitor general, Charles Fahy, said the government needed more time to prepare its case. Almost exactly sixty-seven years later, on May 20, 2011, Acting Solicitor General Neal Katyal issued a statement titled “Confession of Error: The Solicitor General’s Mistakes During the Japanese-American Internment Cases” (
http://www.justice.gov/opa/blog/confession-error-solicitor-generals-mistakes-during-japanese-american-internment-cases
). The report cited a review of Justice Department documents, indicating that in 1943 and 1944 Solicitor General Charles Fahy failed to tell the Court of relevant reports minimizing the danger posed by Japanese Americans living on the West Coast. His omissions and misstatements came in the cases of
Korematsu v. United States
and
Hirabayashi v. United States
.

BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES

John Aiso:
JAH
, p. 98.

Francis Biddle:
Ibid., p. 113.

Tom C. Clark:
PJ
, p. 378.