Nazi Germany and the Jews: The Years of Persecution, 1933-1939 (53 page)

41. Local Police Authority, Göttingen, to District President, Hildesheim, 1.4.33, ibid.

42. Deborah E. Lipstadt,
Beyond Belief: The American Press and the Coming of the Holocaust 1933–1945
(New York, 1986), pp. 44–45. On Walter Lippmann’s positions see mainly Ronald Steel,
Walter Lippmann and the American Century
(Boston, 1980), particularly pp. 330–33.

43.
Akten der Reichskanzlei: Die Regierung Hitler
, part 1, vol. 1, p. 251.

44. Zimmermann, “Die aussichtslose Republik,” pp. 155, 157–58.

45. Avraham Barkai,
From Boycott to Annihilation: The Economic Struggle of German Jews 1933–1943
(Hanover, N.H., 1989), p. 15.

46. Heinz Höhne,
Die Zeit der Illusionen: Hitler und die Anfänge des Dritten Reiches 1933–1936
(Düsseldorf, 1991), p. 76.

47. For a description of various components of this radical tendency, see Dietrich Orlow,
The History of the Nazi Party 1933–1945
, vol. 2 (Pittsburgh, 1973), pp. 40ff.

48. Richard Bessel,
Political Violence and the Rise of Nazism: The Storm Troopers in Eastern Germany, 1925–1934
(New Haven, Conn., 1984), p. 107.

49. David Bankier, “Hitler and the Policy-Making Process on the Jewish Question,”
Holocaust and Genocide Studies
3, no. 1 (1988): 4.

50.
Akten der Reichskanzlei: Die Regiergung Hitler
, part 1, vol. 1, p. 277.

51. Memoranda of telephone conversations between the State Department and the U.S. Embassy in Berlin, March 31, 1933,
Foreign Relations of the United States, 1933
, vol. 2 (Washington, D.C., 1948), pp. 342 ff.

52. Henry Friedlander and Sybil Milton, eds.,
Archives of the Holocaust
, vol. 17,
American Jewish Committee New York
, ed. Frederick D. Bogin (New York, 1993), p. 4. In May 1933 a trilingual German, English, and French collection of various Jewish declarations was printed (probably in Berlin) by an ostensibly Jewish publisher, “Jakov Trachtenberg,” under the title
Atrocity Propaganda Is Based on Lies, the Jews of Germany Themselves Say. (Die Greuel-Propaganda ist eine Lügenpropaganda, sagen die deutschen Juden selbst
.) The book was probably meant for worldwide distribution. I am indebted to Hans Rogger for drawing my attention to this publication.

53. Yoav Gelber, “The Reactions of the Zionist Movement and the Yishuv to the Nazis’ Rise to Power,”
Yad Vashem Studies
18 (1987): 46. From Gelber’s text it is not clear whether the telegram was sent before or after April 1.

54. About the quandary of the American Jewish leadership see Gulie Ne’eman Arad,
The American Jewish Leadership and the Nazi Menace
(Bloomington, Ind., forthcoming [1997]).

55. Gelber, “The Reactions of the Zionist Movement,” pp. 47–48. On the American Jewish boycott see mainly Moshe R. Gottlieb,
American Anti-Nazi Resistance, 1933–1941: An Historical Analysis
(New York, 1982).

56. Goebbels,
Die Tagebücher
, vol. 2, pp. 398–99.

57. Ibid., p. 400.

58. Ibid.

59. Barkai,
From Boycott to Annihilation
, p. 2.

60. For a detailed account of the concrete problems encountered by the Nazis, see Karl A. Schleunes,
The Twisted Road to Auschwitz: Nazi Policy toward German Jews 1933–1939
(Urbana, Ill., 1970), pp. 84–90.

61. Ibid., p. 94.

62. Peter Hanke,
Zur Geschichte der Juden in München zwischen 1933 und 1945
(Munich, 1967), p. 85.

63. Ibid., pp. 85–86.

64. For Martha Appel’s memoirs see Monika Richarz, ed.,
Jüdisches Leben in Deutschland: Selbstzeugnisse zur Sozialgeschichte 1918–1945
(Stuttgart, 1982), pp. 231–32.

65. Broszat, Fröhlich, and Wiesemann,
Bayern in der NS-Zeit
, vol. 1, p. 435.

66. Helmut Genschel,
Die Verdrängung der Juden aus der Wirtschaft im Dritten Reich
(Göttingen, 1966), p. 58.

67. On April 5 the German ambassador to France reported to Berlin: “How unfavorable the effects of the action against the Jews had been in France was best shown by the sympathy expressed by high-ranking Catholic and Protestant clergy at the French-Jewish demonstrations against the anti-Jewish movement in Germany…. There was no doubt…that the operation had been fully exploited by French circles antagonistic to Germany for material or political reasons and that they had fully attained their purpose of painting again in the darkest of colors, even to the rural population, the danger from a Germany inclining to deeds of violence.” Koester to Foreign Minister, 5 April 1933.
Documents on German Foreign Policy, Series C (1933–1937)
, vol. 1 (Washington, D.C., 1957), p. 251.

68. Ernst Noam and Wolf-Arno Kropat,
Juden vor Gericht, 1933–1945: Dokumente aus hessischen Justizakten
(Wiesbaden, 1975), pp. 84–86.

69. Files of the NSDAP Main Office, microfiche 581 00181, IfZ. (Parteikanzlei der NSDAP)

70. David Bankier, “The German Communist Party and Nazi Anti-Semitism, 1933–1938,”
LBIY
32 (1987): 327.

71. Barkai,
From Boycott to Annihilation
, p. 17.

72. Ibid., p. 72. As a result, part of the shares of Tietz were acquired by major German banks. In 1934 the Tietz brothers sold the remainder; the firm was Aryanized and renamed Hertie AG.

73. National Socialist enterprise cell of Ullstein Verlag to Reich Chancellor, 21.6.1933, Max Kreuzberger Research Papers, AR 7183, Box 10, Folder 1, Leo Baeck Institute [hereafter LBI], New York.

74. Ron Chernow,
The Warburgs
(New York, 1993), p. 377.

75. Harold James, “Die Deutsche Bank und die Diktatur 1933–1945,” in Lothar Gall et al., eds.,
Die Deutsche Bank 1870–1995
(Munich, 1995), p. 336.

76. Ibid.

77. The overall argument and a wealth of supporting archival material is presented in Peter Hayes, “Big Business and ‘Aryanisation’ in Germany, 1933–1939,” in
Jahrbuch für Antisemitismusforschung
3 (1994), pp. 254ff.

78. Peter Hayes,
Industry and Ideology: IG Farben in the Nazi Era
(New York, 1987), p. 93.

79. Chernow,
The Warburgs
, pp. 379–80.

80. Jeremy Noakes and G. Pridham, eds.,
Nazism: A History in Documents and Eyewitness Accounts 1919–1945
, vol. 1 (New York, 1983), pp. 14–16.

81. Herbert Michaelis and Ernst Schraepler, eds.,
Ursachen und Folgen: Vom deutschen Zusammenbruch 1918 und 1945 bis zur staatlichen Neuordnung Deutscblands in der Gegenwart: Eine Urkunden- und Dokumentsammlung zur Zeitgeschichte
, vol. 9 (Berlin, n.d.), p. 383.

82. Joseph Walk, ed.,
Das Sonderrecht für die Juden im NS-Staat
(Heidelberg, 1981), p. 4.

83. Hermann Graml,
Anti-Semitism in the Third Reich
(Cambridge, Mass., 1992), p. 97.

84. Walk,
Das Sonderrecht
, p. 3.

85. Ibid., p. 36.

86. For a detailed description of these laws, see in particular Schleunes,
The Twisted Road
, pp. 102–4.

87. To this day the best overall analysis of the Civil Service Law is still to be found in Hans Mommsen,
Beamtentum im Dritten Reich
(Stuttgart, 1966), pp. 39ff.

88. Walk,
Sonderrecht
, pp. 12–13. The party program of 1920 excluded Jews from party membership. After 1933 most organizations directly affiliated with the party, such as the German Labor Front, for instance, excluded membership for anyone with Jewish ancestry after 1800. See Jeremy Noakes, “Wohin gehören die Judenmischlinge? Die Entstehung der ersten Durchführungsverordnungen zu den Nürnberger Gesetzen,” in Ursula Büttner, Werner Johe, and Angelika Voss, eds.,
Das Unrechtsregime: Internationale Forschung über den Nationalsozialismus
, vol. 2,
Verfolgung, Exil, belasteter Neubeginn
(Hamburg, 1986), p. 71.

89. Hilberg,
The Destruction of the European Jews
, p. 54. For Hilberg there was a straight line between the first definition and the ultimate extermination.

90. For details regarding the origins of the anti-Jewish paragraph of the Civil Service Law, see Günter Neliba,
Wilhelm Frick: Der Legalist des Unrechtsstaates: Eine Politische Biographie
(Paderborn, 1992), pp. 168ff.

91. Ibid., p. 171; see also Mommsen,
Beamtentum
, pp. 48, 53.

92. Hans-Joachim Dahms, “Einleitung” in Heinrich Becker, Hans-Joachim Dahms, Cornelia Wegeler, eds.,
Die Universität Göttingen unter dem Nationalsozialismus: verdrängte Kapitel ihrer 250 jährigen Geschichte
(Munich, 1987), pp. 17–18.

93. Achim Gercke, “Die Lösung der Judenfrage,”
Nationalsozialistische Monatshefte
38 (May 1933): 196. Gercke did not simply write that the laws were “educational” but that they were “educational insofar as they indicated a direction.”

94. Walk,
Das Sonderrecht
, p. 12.

95. Comité des Délégations Juives, ed.,
Das Schwarzbuch: Tatsachen und Dokumente: Die Lage der Juden in Deutschland 1933
(Paris, 1934; reprint, Berlin, 1983), p. 105.

96. Uwe Dietrich Adam,
Judenpolitik im Dritten Reich
(Düsseldorf, 1972), pp. 50ff., 65ff. For Schlegelberger’s report to Hitler on April 4, see
Akten der Reichskanzlei
, part 1, vol. 1, p. 293n. For Hitler’s statement, see the protocol of the cabinet meeting of April 7, 1933, ibid., p. 324.

97. Dirk Blasius, “Zwischen Rechtsvertrauen und Rechtszerstörung: Deutsche Juden 1933–1935,” in Dirk Blasius and Dan Diner, eds.,
Zerbrochene Geschichte: Leben und Selbstverständnis der Juden in Deutschland
(Frankfurt am Main, 1991), p. 130.

98. Barkai,
From Boycott to Annihilation
, p. 4.

99. Konrad H. Jarausch, “Jewish Lawyers in Germany, 1848–1938: The Disintegration of a Profession,”
LBIY
36 (1991): 181–82.

100. Comité des Delegations Juives,
Das Schwarzbuch
, pp. 195–96.

101.
Akten der Reichskanzlei
, part 1, vol. 1, p. 324. (“Hier müsse eine umfassende Aufklärung einsetzen.”)

102. Walk,
Das Sonderrecht
, p. 17; Albrecht Götz von Olenhusen, “Die ‘Nichtarischen’ Studenten an den deutschen Hochschulen: Zur nationalsozialistischen Rassenpolitik 1933–1945,”
VfZ
14, no. 2 (1966): 177ff.

103. Ibid., p. 180.

104. For this point see Kurt Pätzold,
Faschismus, Rassenwahn, Judenverfolgung: Eine Studie zur politischen Strategie und Taktik des faschistischen deutschen Imperialisms (1933–1935)
([East]Berlin, 1975), p. 105.

105. For the case of Karl Berthold (name changed) and the appended documentation, see Hans Mommsen, “Die Geschichte des Chemnitzer Kanzleigehilfen K.B.,” in Detlev Peukert und Jürgen Reulecke, eds.,
Die Reihen fast geschlossen: Beiträge zur Geschichte des Alltags unterm Nationalsozialismus
(Wuppertal, 1981), pp. 337ff. In present-day terminology, a
Versorgungsamt
is “a social benefits office for state employees.” Here I shall refer merely to the “social benefits office.”

106. Ibid., p. 348.

107. Ibid., p. 350.

108. Ibid., p. 350.

109. Ibid., p. 351.

110. Lammers to Hess, 6.6.1933, Parteikanzlei der NSDAP, microfiche 10129934, IfZ.

111. For the details of this case, see Jeremy Noakes, “The Development of Nazi Policy Towards the German-Jewish ‘Mischlinge’ 1933–1945,”
LBIY
34 (1989): 316–17.

112. Volker Dahm, “Anfänge und Ideologie der Reichskulturkammer,”
VfZ
34, no. 1 (1986): 78. See also Alan Edward Steinweis,
Art, Ideology and Economics in Nazi Germany: The Reich Chamber of Culture and the Regulation of the Culture Professions in Nazi Germany
(Chapel Hill, N.C., 1988), pp. 322ff.

113. For details on this issue, see in particular Herbert Freeden, “Das Ende der jüdischen Presse in Nazideutschland,”
Bulletin des Leo Baeck Instituts
65 (1983): 4–5.

114. James, “Die Deutsche Bank,” p. 337.

115. Mommsen,
Beamtentum
, p. 49.

116. Quoted in Peter Pulzer,
The Rise of Political Anti-Semitism in Germany and Austria
(Cambridge, Mass., 1988), p. 112.

117. Donald M. McKale, “From Weimar to Nazism: Abteilung III of the German Foreign Office and the Support of Antisemitism, 1931–1935,”
LBIY
32 (1987): pp. 297ff. On the attitude of the Wilhelmstrasse regarding the “Jewish Question” during the early phase of the regime, see also Christoper R. Browning,
The Final Solution and the German Foreign Office
(New York, 1978).

118. Noakes and Pridham,
Nazism 1919–1945
, vol. 2, pp. 526–27.

119. A first summary of this document was published in Hebrew in
Ha’aretz
by the Israeli historian Shaul Esh on April 1, 1963; it was interpreted as a master plan for the whole Nazi anti-Jewish program. For the English translation, with comments, see Uwe Dietrich Adam, “An Overall Plan for Anti-Jewish Legislation in the Third Reich?”
Yad Vashem Studies
11 (1976): 33–55.

120. Ibid., p. 40.

121. First published in Michaelis and Schraepler,
Ursachen
, pp. 393–95. Translated by Dieter Kuntz in Benjamin C. Sax and Dieter Kuntz, eds.,
Inside Hitler’s Germany: A Documentary History of Life in the Third Reich
(Lexington, Ky., 1992), pp. 401–3. The translation has been very slightly revised. For another translation see
Documents on German Foreign Policy, Series C
, pp. 253–5.

122.
Akten der Reichskanzlei: Die Regierung Hitler
, part 1, vol. 1, pp. 391–92.

123. Walk,
Das Sonderrecht
, p. 8.

124. Ibid., p. 9.

125. Ibid., p. 10.

126. Ibid., p. 13.