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Stewart, W. F., Schwartz, B. S., Davatzikos, C., et al. (2006). Past adult lead exposure is linked to neurodegeneration measured by brain MRI.
Neurology
66, 1476–84.

  64.
CDC safety level values for bone and lead levels are somewhat different. In this case we are dealing with bone lead, and CDC safety levels for bone are defined as <15. Consequently, the average person in this study was at the very top of that safety level. Put another way, about half of the sample exceeded CDC-defined safe bone-lead levels.

  65.
Other affected structures included the cingulate and insula. Within the frontal lobe, the middle frontal gyrus was the area most reduced in volume.

  66.
Cecil, K. M., Brubaker, C. J., Adler, C. M., Dietrich, K. N., Altaye, M., et al. (2008). Decreased brain volume in adults with childhood lead exposure.
PLOS Medicine
5, 741–50.

  67.
One caveat is that this sample was 90 percent African-American and these prospective brain-imaging findings could be usefully replicated on a Caucasian sample. One would expect the same findings in other ethnic groups, although it is conceivable that poorer neighborhood conditions could result in greater exposure to lead in this community sample, and possibly stronger brain-lead relationships. The ethnicity of the sample of lead workers was not reported in Cecil et al. (2008).

  68.
For a detailed review see Needleman, H. L., Riess, J. A., Tobin, M. J., Biesecker, G. E. & Greenhouse, J. B. (1996). Bone lead levels and delinquent behavior.
Journal of the American Medical Association
275, 363–69.

  69.
Delville, Y. (1999). Exposure to lead during development alters aggressive behavior in golden hamsters.
Neurotoxicology and Teratology
21, 445–49.

  70.
Wright, J. P., Dietrich, K. N., Ris, M. D., Hornung, R. W., Wessel, S. D., et al. (2008). Association of prenatal and childhood blood lead concentrations with criminal arrests in early adulthood.
PLOS Medicine
5, 732–40.

  71.
These findings on early lead exposure and adult crime applied to women as well as men, with careful control for potential confounds such as maternal smoking, alcohol use, and drug use in addition to the usual social suspects such as low income.

  72.
Wright, J. P. et al. (2008). Association of prenatal and childhood blood lead concentrations with criminal arrests in early adulthood.

  73.
Wasserman, G., Staghezza-Jaramillo, B., Shrout, P., Popovac, D. & Graziano, J. (1998). The effect of lead exposure on behavior problems in preschool children.
American Journal of Public Health
88, 481–86.

  74.
Chen, A., Cai, B., Dietrich, K. N., Radcliffe, J. & Rogan, W. J. (2007). Lead exposure, IQ, and behavior in urban 5- to 7-year-olds: Does lead affect behavior only by lowering IQ?
Pediatrics
119, 650–58.

  75.
Nevin, R. (2000). How lead exposure relates to temporal changes in IQ, violent crime, and unwed pregnancy.
Environmental Research
, 83, 1–22.

  76.
Nevin, R. (2007). Understanding international crime trends: The legacy of preschool lead exposure.
Environmental Research
, 104, 315–36.

  77.
Reyes, J. W. (2007). Environmental policy as social policy? The impact of childhood lead exposure on crime.
BE Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy
, 7, Issue 1, Article 51, 1–41.

  78.
Mielke, H. W. & Zahran, S. (2012). The urban rise and fall of air lead (Pb) and the latent surge and retreat of societal violence.
Environment International
, 43, 48–55.

  79.
Drum, K. (2013). America’s real criminal element: Lead.
Mother Jones.
January/February issue.
http://www.motherjones.com/environment/2013/01/lead-crime-link-gasoline
.

  80.
San Ysidro McDonald’s Massacre:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Ysidro_McDonald’s_massacre
.

  81.
Wilson, J. (1998). Science: The chemistry of violence.
Popular Mechanics
, April, 42–43.

  82.
Ibid.

  83.
Gottschalk, L. A., Rebello, T., Buchsbaum, M. S. & Tucker, H. G. (1991). Abnormalities in hair trace elements as indicators of aberrant behavior.
Comprehensive Psychiatry
32, 229–37.

  84.
Masters, R. D., Hone, B. & Doshi, A. (1998). Environmental pollution, neurotoxicity, and criminal violence. In J. Rose (ed.),
Environmental Toxicology: Current Developments
, pp. 13–48. New York: Gordon and Breach.

  85.
Masters, R. D. & Coplan, M. (1999). A dynamic, multifactorial model of alcohol, drug abuse, and crime: Linking neuroscience and behavior to toxicology.
Social Science Information
38, 591–624.

  86.
Pihl, R. O. & Ervin, F. (1990). Lead and cadmium in violent criminals.
Psychological Reports
66, 839–44.

  87.
Marlowe, M., Cossairt, A., Moon, C., Errera, J., MacNeel, A., et al. (1985). Main and interaction effects of metallic toxins on classroom behavior.
Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology
13, 185–98.

  88.
Bao, Q. S., Lu, C. Y., Song, H., Wang, M., Ling, W., et al. (2009). Behavioural development of school-aged children who live around a multi-metal sulphide mine in Guangdong province, China: A cross-sectional study.
BMC Public Health
9, 1–8.

  89.
Absorption of cadmium from the lungs is much more efficient—five times better—than absorption by the gut, which also helps explain why smokers have such high cadmium levels compared with nonsmokers, even when both groups have the same food intake.

  90.
Jarup, L. (2003). Hazards of heavy metal contamination.
British Medical Bulletin
68, 167–82.

  91.
Hubbs-Tait, L., Nation, J. R., Krebs, N. F. & Bellinger, D. C. (2005). Neurotoxicants, micronutrients, and social environments: Individual and combined effects on children’s development.
Psychological Science in the Public Interest
6, 57–121.

  92.
Van Assche, F. J. (1998).
A Stepwise Model to Quantify the Relative Contribution of Different Environmental Sources to Human Cadmium Exposure
. Paper presented at NiCad ’98, Prague, Czech Republic, September 21–22.

  93.
Flanagan, P. R., McLellan, J. S., Haist, J., Cherian, M. G., Chamberlain, M. J., et al. (1978). Increased dietary cadmium absorption in mice and human subjects with iron deficiency.
Gastroenterology
74, 841–46.

  94.
Blum, D. (1995). Manganese an evil player in criminal urges, experts say.
The Sacramento Bee
, November 27, p. 1.

  95.
Gottschalk, et al., Abnormalities in hair trace elements as indicators of aberrant behavior.

  96.
Masters, R., Way, B., Hone, B., Grelotti, D., Gonzalez, D., et al. (1998). Neurotoxicity and violence.
Vermont Law Review
22, 358–82.

  97.
Finlay, J. W. (2007). Does environmental exposure to manganese pose a health risk to healthy adults?
Nutrition Reviews
62, 148–53.

  98.
Ericson, J., Crinella, F., Clarke-Stewart, K. A., Allhusen, V., Chan, T., et al. (2007). Prenatal manganese levels linked to childhood behavioral disinhibition.
Neurotoxicology and Teratology
29, 181–87.

  99.
Finley, J. W. (1999). Manganese absorption and retention by young women is associated with serum ferritin concentration.
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
70, 37–43.

100.
Zhang, G., Liu, D. & He, P. (1995). Effects of manganese on learning abilities in school children.
Zhonghua Yufang Yixue Zazhi
29, 156–58.

101.
Bowler, R. M., Mergler, D., Sassine, M. P., Laribbe, F. & Kudnell, K. (1999). Neuropsychiatric effects of manganese on mood.
Neurotoxicology
20, 367–78.

102.
Ibid.

103.
Hubbs-Tait et al., Neurotoxicants, micronutrients, and social environments.

104.
Grandjean, P., Weihe, P., White, R. F., Debes, F., Araki, S., et al. (1997). Cognitive deficit in 7-year-old children with prenatal exposure to methylmercury.
Neurotoxicology and Teratology
19, 417–28.

105.
Myers, G. J., Davidson, P. W., Cox, C., Shamlaye, C. F., Palumbo, D., et al. (2003). Prenatal methylmercury exposure from ocean fish consumption in the Seychelles child development study.
Lancet
361, 1686–92.

106.
Justin, H. G. & Williams, L. R. (2007). Consequences of prenatal toxin exposure for mental health in children and adolescents: A systematic review.
European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
16, 243–53.

107.
Laing, R. D. & Esterson, A. (1970).
Sanity, Madness, and the Family: Families of Schizophrenics
. Oxford: Pelican.

108.
Reiss, A. J. & Roth, J. A. (eds.).
Understanding and Preventing Violence.
Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

109.
Raine, A. (2002). Annotation: The role of prefrontal deficits, low autonomic
arousal, and early health factors in the development of antisocial and aggressive behavior.
Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
43, 417–34.

110.
Brennan, P. A. & Alden, A. (2005). Schizophrenia and violence: The overlap. In A. Raine (ed.),
Crime and Schizophrenia: Causes and Cures
, pp. 15–28. New York: Nova Science Publishers.

111.
Torrey, E. F. (2011). Stigma and violence: Isn’t it time to connect the dots?
Schizophrenia Bulletin
37, 892–96.

112.
Fazel, S., Gulati, G., Linsell, L., Geddes, J. R. & Grann, M. (2009). Schizophrenia and violence: Systematic review and meta-analysis.
PLOS Medicine
6, 1–15.

113.
Cannon, T. D. & Raine, A. (2006). Neuroanatomical and genetic influences on schizophrenia and crime: The schizophrenia-crime association. In Raine,
Crime and Schizophrenia
, pp. 219–46.

114.
Raine, A. (2006). Schizotypal personality: Neurodevelopmental and psychosocial trajectories.
Annual Review of Clinical Psychology
2, 291–326.

115.
Raine, A. (1991). The Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire (SPQ): A measure of schizotypal personality based on DSM-III-R criteria.
Schizophrenia Bulletin
17, 555–64.

116.
Ibid.

117.
Siever, L. J. & Davis, K. L. (2004). The pathophysiology of schizophrenia disorders: Perspectives from the spectrum.
American Journal of Psychiatry
161, 398–413.

118.
Wahlund, K. & Kristiansson, M. (2009). Aggression, psychopathy and brain imaging: Review and future recommendations.
International Journal of Law and Psychiatry
32, 266–71.

119.
Cannon & Raine, Neuroanatomical and genetic influences on schizophrenia and crime, pp. 219–46.

120.
Raine, A., Fung, A. L. & Lam, B.Y.H. (2011). Peer victimization partially mediates the schizotypy—aggression relationship in children and adolescents.
Schizophrenia Bulletin
, 37, 937–45.

121.
Norris, J. (1988).
Serial Killers
. New York: Anchor Books.

122.
Leonard Lake:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Lake
.

123.
The name of the location is ominous—Calaveras is the Spanish word for skulls, and over forty-five pounds of bones were eventually excavated at Lake’s hideout, the remains of many of his victims.

124.
Henry, J. D., Bailey, P. E., Rendell, P. G. (2008). Empathy, social functioning and schizotypy.
Psychiatry Research
160, 15–22.

125.
Norris,
Serial Killers
, p. 152.

126.
Suhr, J. A., Spitznagel, M. B. & Gunstad, J. (2006). An obsessive-compulsive subtype of schizotypy: Evidence from a nonclinical sample.
Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease
194, 884–86.

127.
Fenton, W. S., McGlashan, T. H., Victor, B. J., et al. (1997). Symptoms, subtype, and suicidality in patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders.
American Journal of Psychiatry
154, 199–204.

128.
Raine,
Crime and Schizophrenia
.

129.
Torrey, Stigma and violence.

8. THE BIOSOCIAL JIGSAW PUZZLE

    1.
Norris, J. (1988).
Serial Killers
. New York: Anchor Books.

    2.
Jones, R. G. (1992).
Lambs to the Slaughter
. London: BCA.

    3.
Norris,
Serial Killers
.

    4.
Ibid.

    5.
Jones,
Lambs to the Slaughter
.

    6.
Berry-Dee, C. (2003).
Talking with Serial Killers
. London: John Blake.

    7.
Hare, R. D. (1965). Acquisition and generalization of a conditioned-fear response in psychopathic and non-psychopathic criminals.
Journal of Psychology
59, 367–70; Hare, R. D. (1970).
Psychopathy: Theory and Practice
. New York: Wiley.

    8.
Raine, A. & Venables, P. H. (1981). Classical conditioning and socialization—a biosocial interaction.
Personality & Individual Differences
2, 273–83; Raine, A. & Venables, P. H. (1984). Tonic heart rate level, social class and antisocial behaviour in adolescents.
Biological Psychology
18, 123–32.

    9.
Rafter, N. H. (2006). H. J. Eysenck in Fagin’s kitchen: The return to biological theory in 20th-century criminology.
History of the Human Sciences
19, 37–56.

  10.
Raine, A., Brennan, P. & Mednick, S. A. (1994). Birth complications combined with early maternal rejection at age 1 year predispose to violent crime at age 18 years.
Archives of General Psychiatry
51, 984–88.

  11.
Raine, A. (2002). Biosocial studies of antisocial and violent behavior in children and adults: A review.
Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology
30, 311–26.

  12.
Mednick, S. A. & Kandel, E. (1988). Genetic and perinatal factors in violence. In S. A. Mednick & T. Moffitt (eds.),
Biological Contributions to Crime Causation
, pp. 121–34. Dordrecht, Holland: Martinus Nijhoff.

  13.
Pine, D. S., Shaffer, D., Schonfeld, I. S. & Davies, M. (1997). Minor physical anomalies: Modifiers of environmental risks for psychiatric impairment?
Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry
36, 395–403.

  14.
Norris,
Serial Killers
.

  15.
Rose, D. (2000).
The Big Eddy Club: The Stocking Stranglings and Southern Justice
. New York: The New Press.

  16.
Jordan, B. L. (2000).
Murder in the Peach State
. Atlanta: Midtown Publishing Corp.

  17.
Norris,
Serial Killers
.

  18.
Bowlby, J. (1946).
Forty-four Juvenile Thieves: Their Characters and Home-Life
. London: Tindall and Cox.

  19.
Norris,
Serial Killers
, p. 131.

  20.
Raine, A., Brennan, P., Mednick, B. & Mednick, S. A. (1996). High rates of violence, crime, academic problems, and behavioral problems in males with both early neuromotor deficits and unstable family environments.
Archives of General Psychiatry
53, 544–49.

  21.
While cluster analysis does not exactly carve nature at its joints, it statistically seeks out naturally occurring homogenous subgroups within a population on the basis of social and neurological risk factors in order to identify naturally occurring discrete groups. The emergence of a biosocial group with a combination of social and biological risk confirms the presence within the general population of a biosocial “at risk” group.

  22.
The biosocial group was specifically characterized by neurological problems, parental crime, family instability, marital conflict, and maternal rejection of the child.

  23.
Raine, A., Brennan, P., Mednick, B. & Mednick, S. A. (1996). High rates of violence, crime, academic problems, and behavioral problems in males with both early neuromotor deficits and unstable family environments.
Archives of General Psychiatry
53, 544–49.

  24.
Brennan, P. A., Hall, J., Bor, W., Najman, J. M. & Williams, G. (2003). Integrating biological and social processes in relation to early-onset persistent aggression in boys and girls.
Developmental Psychology
39, 309–23.

  25.
Räsänen, P., Hakko, H., Isohanni, M., Hodgins, S., Järvelin, M. R., et al. (1999). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and risk of criminal behavior among adult male offspring in the northern Finland 1966 birth cohort.
American Journal of Psychiatry
156, 857–62.

  26.
Brennan, P. A., Grekin, E. R. & Mednick, S. A. (1999). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and adult male criminal outcomes.
Archives of General Psychiatry
56, 215–19.

  27.
Gibson, C. L. & Tibbetts, S. G. (2000). A biosocial interaction in predicting early onset of offending.
Psychological Reports
86, 509–18.

  28.
Caspi, A., McClay, J., Moffitt, T., Mill, J., Martin, J., et al. (2002). Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children.
Science
297, 851–54.

  29.
Farrington, D. P. (1997). The relationship between low resting heart rate and violence. In A. Raine, P. A. Brennan, D. Farrington & S. A. Mednick (eds.),
Biosocial Bases of Violence
, pp. 89–105. New York: Plenum.

  30.
Raine, A., Park, S., Lencz, T., Bihrle, S., LaCasse, L., et al. (2001). Reduced right hemisphere activation in severely abused violent offenders during a working memory task: An fMRI study.
Aggressive Behavior
27, 111–29.

  31.
Rowe, R., Maughan, B., Worthman, C. M., Costello, E. J. & Angold, A. (2004). Testosterone, antisocial behavior, and social dominance in boys: Pubertal development and biosocial interaction.
Biological Psychiatry
55, 546–52.

  32.
Feinberg, M. E., Button, T.M.M., Neiderhiser, J. M., Reiss, D. & Hetherington, E. M. (2007). Parenting and adolescent antisocial behavior and depression: Evidence of genotype x parenting environment interaction.
Archives of General Psychiatry
64, 457–65.

  33.
Eysenck, H. J. (1977).
Crime and Personality
, 3rd ed. St. Albans, England: Paladin.

  34.
Ibid.

  35.
Here “good home” is a relative term, and was defined in my early fear-conditioning study as children from high social classes.

  36.
Rafter, H. J. Eysenck in Fagin’s kitchen.

  37.
Other international scholars in addition to Hans Eysenck who should be acknowledged as having shaped a biosocial perspective on crime in the 1970s include Sarnoff Mednick (United States), Karl Christiansen (Denmark), Michael Wadsworth (England), and David Farrington (England). As discussed in the chapter on genetic influences, Avshalom Caspi and Terrie Moffitt took this perspective much further in their far-reaching work on the interaction between severe child abuse and the genotype conferring low levels of MAOA in predisposing to offending. Eysenck himself was half a century ahead of his time in suggesting a biosocial approach to crime, for it is only now that this approach is beginning to be embraced by a wider scientific community.

  38.
Raine, Biosocial studies of antisocial and violent behavior in children and adults.

  39.
Raine, A., Buchsbaum, M. & LaCasse, L. (1997). Brain abnormalities in murderers indicated by positron emission tomography.
Biological Psychiatry
42, 495–508.

  40.
Raine, A., Stoddard, J., Bihrle, S. & Buchsbaum, M. (1998). Prefrontal glucose deficits in murderers lacking psychosocial deprivation.
Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology & Behavioral Neurology
11, 1–7.

  41.
Damasio, A. R., Tranel, D. & Damasio, H. (1990). Individuals with sociopathic behavior caused by frontal damage fail to respond autonomically to social stimuli.
Behavioural Brain Research
41, 81–94.

  42.
Miller, M. (2010). Inside the mind of a serial killer: Interview with Michael Stone. July 27.
http://bigthink.com/ideas/21782
.

  43.
Raine, Biosocial studies of antisocial and violent behavior in children and adults.

  44.
Mednick, S. A. (1977). A bio-social theory of the learning of law-abiding
behavior. In S. A. Mednick & K. O. Christiansen (eds.),
Biosocial Bases of Criminal Behavior
. New York: Gardner Press.

  45.
Raine, A. & Venables, P. H. (1981). Classical conditioning and socialization—a biosocial interaction.
Personality & Individual Differences
2, 273–83.

  46.
Raine, Biosocial studies of antisocial and violent behavior in children and adults.

  47.
Raine, A. & Venables, P. H. (1984). Electrodermal nonresponding, antisocial behavior, and schizoid tendencies in adolescents.
Psychophysiology
21, 424–33.

  48.
Maliphant, R., Hume, F. & Furnham, A. (1990). Autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity, personality characteristics, and disruptive behaviour in girls.
Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry & Allied Disciplines
31, 619–28.

  49.
Wadsworth, M.E.J. (1976). Delinquency, pulse rate and early emotional deprivation.
British Journal of Criminology
16, 245–56.

  50.
Hemming, J. H. (1981). Electrodermal indices in a selected prison sample and students.
Personality & Individual Differences
2, 37–46.

  51.
Buikhuisen, W., Bontekoe, E. H., Plas-Korenhoff, C. & Van Buuren, S. (1984). Characteristics of criminals: The privileged offender.
International Journal of Law & Psychiatry
7, 301–13.

  52.
Raine, A., Reynolds, C., Venables, P. H. & Mednick, S. A. (1997). Biosocial bases of aggressive behavior in childhood: Resting heart rate, skin conductance orienting and physique. In A. Raine, P. A. Brennan, D. Farrington & S. Mednick (eds.),
Biosocial Bases of Violence
, pp. 107–260. New York: Plenum.

  53.
Raine, A. (1987). Effect of early environment on electrodermal and cognitive correlates of schizotypy and psychopathy in criminals.
International Journal of Psychophysiology
4, 277–87.

  54.
Tuvblad, C., Grann, M. & Lichtenstein, P. (2006). Heritability for adolescent antisocial behavior differs with socioeconomic status: Gene-environment interaction.
Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
47, 734–43. In this study, the negative home environment was defined on the basis of socioeconomic status. Furthermore, this moderating effect was particularly found for boys.

  55.
The genotype in question consisted of those with the A1 allelic form of the DRD2 gene.

  56.
Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Tranel, D. & Damasio, A. R. (1997). Deciding advantageously before knowing the advantageous strategy.
Science
275, 1293–94.

  57.
Baker, L. A., Barton, M. & Raine, A. (2002). The Southern California Twin Register at the University of Southern California.
Twin Research
5, 456–59.

  58.
Gao, Y., Baker, L. A., Raine, A., Wu, H. & Bezdjian, S. (2009). Brief Report: Interaction between social class and risky decision-making in children with psychopathic tendencies.
Journal of Adolescence
32, 409–14.

  59.
Delamater, A. R. (2007). The role of the orbitofrontal cortex in sensory-specific encoding of associations in Pavlovian and instrumental conditioning.
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
1121, 152–73.

  60.
In outlining how different brain structures may give rise to the emotional, cognitive, and behavioral risk factors for violence, I have been relatively simplistic. Limbic abnormalities may, for example, in part give rise to the more affective, emotional components of violence, but clearly there will be
interactions
between multiple brain circuits—including the orbitofrontal cortex—giving rise to any one risk factor for violence.

  61.
Meyer-Lindenberg, A., Buckholtz, J. W., Kolachana, B., Hariri, A. R., Pezawas, L., et al. (2006). Neural mechanisms of genetic risk for impulsivity and violence in humans.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
103, 6269–74.

  62.
Huang, E. J. & Reichardt, L. F. (2001). Neurotrophins: Roles in neural development and function.
Annual Review of Neuroscience
24, 677–736.

  63.
Gorski, J. A., Zeiler, S. R., Tamowski, S. & Jones, K. R. (2003). Brain-derived neurotrophic factor is required for the maintenance of cortical dendrites.
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  64.
Bueller, J. A., Aftab, M., Sen, S., Gomez-Hassan, D., Burmeister, M., et al. (2006). BDNF val(66)met allele is associated with reduced hippocampal volume in healthy subjects.
Biological Psychiatry
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  65.
Goldberg, T. E. & Weinberger, D. R. (2004). Genes and the parsing of cognitive processes.
Trends in Cognitive Sciences
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  66.
Soliman, F., Glatt, C. E., Bath, K. G., Levita, L., Jones, R. M., et al. (2010). A genetic variant BDNF polymorphism alters extinction learning in both mouse and human.
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Oades, R. D., Lasky-Su, J., Christiansen, H., Faraone, S. V., Sonuga-Barke, E. J., et al. (2008). The influence of serotonin and other genes on impulsive behavioral aggression and cognitive impulsivity in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): Findings from a family-based association test (FBAT) analysis.
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Einat, H., Manji, H. K., Gould, T. D., Du, J. & Chen, G. (2003). Possible involvement of the ERK signaling cascade in bipolar disorder: Behavioral leads from the study of mutant mice.
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Earls, F. J., Brooks-Gunn, J., Raudenbush, S. W. & Sampson, R. J. (2002).
Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods (PHDCN): Longitudinal Cohort Study, Waves 1–3, 1994–2002
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