The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Art and Artists (238 page)

(1824–1911).
Dutch painter. He studied in Amsterdam and Paris and began his career as a portrait and historical painter, but in the 1850s he turned to the kind of work for which he is principally known—scenes of peasants and fishermen and the milieu in which they lived. In the 1870s he settled in The Hague and became one of the leading members of the
Hague School
. He has been called ‘the Dutch
Millet
’ and during his lifetime he won great popularity because of his piously sentimental approach. His son, Isaäc (1865–1934), also worked at The Hague, but in a style almost completely independent of his father's. His pictures of the social life of his time are influenced by
Breitner
and characterized by the vivid colours and vigorous brushwork of the
Impressionists
.

 
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Itinerants
.

See
WANDERERS
.

 
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(1888–1967).
Swiss painter, designer, writer on art, teacher, and administrator. In 1916 he opened his own school of art in Vienna, then from 1919 to 1923 he taught at the
Bauhaus
, where he was in charge of the ‘Preliminary Course’, obligatory for all students. In 1923 he left the Bauhaus and opened another school of his own in Berlin, then from 1932 to 1938 he taught at the Krefeld School of Textile Design. In 1938 he settled in Zurich, where he held four posts concurrently—as Director of the School of Arts and Crafts, the Museum of Arts and Crafts, the Rietberg Museum, and the School of Textile Design. He held the first three posts until 1953 and retired from the fourth in 1961. Itten wrote several books on art theory and his work as a painter consisted mainly of geometrical abstractions exemplifying his researches into colour. However, he is best remembered as a teacher, expecially for his Preliminary Course at the Bauhaus, which had a great influence on instruction in other art schools. He emphasized the importance of knowledge of materials, but also encouraged his pupils to develop their imaginations through, for example, automatic writing (see
AUTOMATISM
). His mystical ideas were opposed to the technological outlook of
Gropius
(their quarrels caused Itten's departure from the Bauhaus) and he had a reputation as a crank (he followed an obscure faith called Mazdazhan, shaved his head, and wore a long robe), but he influenced many of his students. Frank Whitford (
Bauhaus
, 1984) describes him as ‘a perplexing mixture of saint and charlatan’.

 
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(1806–58).
Russian painter. He was born in St Petersburg and studied there at the Academy of Fine Arts under his father, the painter
Andrey Ivanov
(1772–1848). Most of his career was spent in Rome, where he settled in 1831. Initially he was preoccupied with subjects from the classical world, but partly under the influence of the
Nazarenes
(he was a friend of
Overbeck
) he turned to religious painting, and his fame is inseparable from his main work, which occupied him for about 20 years,
Christ's First Appearance to the People
(Tretyakov Gal., Moscow). This enormous painting achieved European celebrity long before its completion, but proved disappointing when it was finally exhibited in St Petersburg in 1858, its
Raphaelesque
composition being at odds with the naturalistic setting and details, the result of hundreds of preparatory studies. Ivanov accompanied the painting to St Petersburg and died of cholera a few months afterwards. He had no immediate followers, but the moral sincerity of his work was influential on many Russian painters, notably
Kramskoi
.

 
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ivory
.

A hard, smooth, creamy white substance forming the main part of the tusks of elephants and some other animals, used as a carving material from the earliest times. Elephant (also mammoth) and walrus tusks have been the commonest source of ivory, but carvings made from narwhal and rhinoceros horn, stag-horn, and even bone, have been embraced by the term. True ivory is easily worked with saws, chisels, drills, and rasps, but the size and shape of a carving are usually limited by the dimensions of the tusk, the curvature of which has sometimes been exploited to give a graceful swing to the figure, notably in
Gothic
statuettes of the Virgin. Though ivory was often painted in the Middle Ages, its natural lustre, translucence, and satin smoothness have always been appreciated. In the ancient world it was classed with gold and precious stones as a luxury material, and the Greeks used it for colossal
chryselephantine
(gold and ivory) cultstatues. After the 14th cent. ivory-carving declined steadily in Europe, but there were revivals in the 17th and 18th cents.

 
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