The Greek & Latin Roots of English (22 page)

A philosopher. Fourth century BCE (Delphi Museum)

Man is a political animal—that is, it is the nature of man to live in the city
.

ARISTOTLE (fourth-century BCE Greek philosopher),
Politics
1.2

GREEK POLITICS

Many modern theories and forms of government (or at least the words we use to describe them) have their origins in the Greek and Roman political systems. Indeed, the Greeks had a name for every kind of polity; and at one time or another, they seem to have experimented with all of them: monarchy, oligarchy, tyranny, democracy—all these words have etymological roots in Greek political thought.

Ancient Greece was divided into independent city-states, all of which had their own constitutions, laws, and religious institutions. Each state (
polis
) fiercely guarded its autonomy, and every individual took his identity from his place of citizenship and its political, social, and religious ways of life.

Although there were perhaps hundreds of these independent states in Greece, the two that dominated Greek political life in the sixth and fifth centuries BCE were Athens and Sparta. The two cities had radically different views of the meaning of law and power that determined the structure of their political institutions. Sparta held tenaciously to a way of life shaped by a conservative oligarchic form of government and by compulsory military training that began at age seven. Athens, on the other hand, created, over the course of the fifth century BCE, a radical democracy whose governing Council eventually had 500 members, all selected by lot, who served terms of one year. It is perhaps no surprise, then, that eventually, in 431 BCE, they went to war against each other. Although Sparta was eventually the military victor after nearly thirty years of intermittent warfare, both states, as well as their allies, were weakened by the conflict and neither ever recovered completely. In the fourth century BCE, Philip of Macedon, father of Alexander the Great, brought almost all the
poleis
under his domination, and although nominally they were free, in reality the Greek cities lost their political autonomy. And eventually, in 146 BCE, after Alexander's successors had been overcome by the growing military power of Rome, Greece became yet another Roman province.

Greek Political Vocabulary

Politics, as Usual

Ostracism, which now means general exclusion from society or from a particular group, was originally a form of political banishment in ancient Athens. It was so named because the punishment was voted upon by writing a person's name on a piece of tile (ὄστρακον) and depositing it into jars marked “yes” or “no.” In his life of Aristides, a fifth-century BCE Athenian statesman and military leader who is famously portrayed as a man of moral integrity, the Greek biographer Plutarch reports that when, due to a struggle for power in Athens, a vote was being taken on whether or not to exile Aristides, “an illiterate countryman, not recognizing him, handed his
ostracon
to Aristides and asked him to write ‘Aristides.’ Aristides, amazed, asked what wrong had Aristides ever done him. ‘Nothing at all,’ he said, ‘I don't even know him, but I am thoroughly annoyed at hearing him called “the Just.’” When Aristides heard this, he did not respond, but he wrote his name on the
ostracon
and handed it back.”

ostracon
(ὄστρακον) =
tile; potsherd

ROMAN POLITICS

According to tradition, after the founding of the city by Romulus in 753 BCE, the first form of Roman government was monarchy; but after a revolution and the expulsion of the kings in 509 BCE, a republic was established that lasted until the end of the first century BCE. At that time, in the midst of deteriorating political and social conditions, an imperial form of government began to take root, although republican institutions, such as the Senate and the consulship, survived for many centuries. Of course, the emperor always kept his eye on political matters, and often his hand in the state treasury.

Roman republican and imperial structures have given their names to many parts of the American system of government. For example, the United States Senate takes its name from the Roman
Senatus
, which originally meant a group of old men, whereas Congress derives its name from a Latin verb that means “to walk together.” And finally, the laws of this country “stand together” in the Constitution.

Roman Political Vocabulary

Nothing Works

Finally, I came to the conclusion that the condition of all existing states is bad—nothing can cure their constitutions, but a miraculous reform assisted by good luck—and I was driven to assert, in praise of true philosophy, that nothing else can enable one to see what is right for states and for individuals, and that the troubles of mankind will never cease until either true and genuine philosophers attain political power or the rulers of states by some dispensation of providence become genuine philosophers
.

PLATO (fourth-century BCE Greek philosopher),
Seventh Letter

GOVERNMENTAL BUREAUCRACY

The Roman state was highly organized not only politically, but economically and socially as well; and over time, the number of administrative offices grew larger and larger. Are you surprised?

Just a Few Roman Political Offices

consul, consulis
= consul, the highest magistrate in the Republic. Two were elected each year.
cf. consulo-consulere-consultum = consider, deliberate
and consilium, consilii = deliberation, advice

censor, censoris
= censor, the magistrate in charge of prosecuting crimes involving moral and political offenses, as well as being responsible for the assessment of taxes and the raising of revenues for public works.
cf. censeo-censēre-censum = tax, assess

tribunus, tribuni
= tribune, the magistrate charged with rights and interests of the plebeian class.

dictator, dictatoris
= dictator. In times of extreme public danger, a dictator might be appointed with supreme power by the Senate for a maximum period of six months.
cf. dico-dicere-dictum = say, speak, declare

pontifex maximus
= the high priest, who was the head of all the official clergy and presided over the religious affairs of the state.
pontifex, pontificis = priest
maximus, maximi = greatest

The word
pontifex
actually means “bridge maker” (pons, pontis = bridge). The origin of the term is unclear, but some scholars believe that it originally was an individual skilled in the magic of bridge making; others argue that his function was to build a “bridge” between the human and the divine world.

Purity in Politics …

The English word
candidate
derives from the fact that when a Roman ran for political office, he would wear a distinctive white toga
(toga candidata)
while campaigning in the Forum.

cf. candeo-candēre = glow, shine; be clear

But Not All That Pure…

The Forum was the public square and center of Roman civic and religious life, but it was also the place where politicians campaigned, debated, legislated, judged, and incessantly plotted against one another. It was there, on the Ides of March, 44 BCE, that the Roman general and dictator, Julius Caesar, was assassinated, the victim of a conspiracy of Roman senators and his supposed friend and ally, Brutus. It is no wonder that in Shakespeare's play
Julius Caesar
a fortune-teller warned him, “Beware the Ides of March.” His dying words,
Et tu, Brute (“Even you, Brutus”)
, have come to mean an act of betrayal.

Only if the Signs Are Right

Perhaps our political system would operate even more efficiently if we followed the Roman method of making public decisions only when what they regarded as divine signs were favorable. The interpreter of these omens, which included the flight of birds, was called the
augur;
and it was he who decided whether the
auspicia
allowed the Senate to act, a military leader to make an expedition, or a successful candidate to be installed, or inaugurated, into office.

Vocabulary

Whose Side Are You On?

A flight of birds that appeared on the right side was taken as a good omen, but one that appeared on the left was a portent of serious trouble ahead.