The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Emancipation (65 page)

19.
Cecil Roth,
A History of the Jews in England
(Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1941), 68–90; Robert C. Stacey, “Royal Taxation and the Social Structure of Medieval Anglo-Jewry: The Tallages of 1239–1242,”
Hebrew Union College Annual
56 (1985): 201, 205; Elliott,
Imperial Spain,
98, 299–303; Henry Charles Lea,
The Moriscos of Spain: Their Conversion and Expulsion
(Philadelphia: Lea Bros., 1901), 292–343. Many of the Jewish physicians who did leave Spain acquired great prestige and influence in Turkey. Heinrich Graetz,
History of the Jews,
vol. 4 (New York: G. Dobsevage, 1927), 401. From the time of Constantine, Christian efforts to expel Jews or force them to convert were partly mitigated by a recognition of their mercantile, financial, and scientific services.

20.
Thomas Jefferson to Jean Nicolas Démeunier, June 26, 1786, in Boyd,
Papers of Thomas Jefferson,
10, 63.

21.
John Boswell,
The Royal Treasure: Muslim Communities under the Crown of Aragon in the Fourteenth Century
(New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977), 293–307; Robert Ignatius Burns,
Islam under the Crusaders: Colonial Survival in the Thirteenth-Century Kingdom of Valencia
(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1973), 16, 334, and passim.

22.
Lea,
Moriscos of Spain,
292–365; Elliott,
Imperial Spain,
227–34, 299–303.

23.
Graetz,
History of the
Jews,
vol. 4, 334–422; Haim Hillel Ben-Sasson, “The Middle Ages,” in
History of the Jewish People,
568–71, 583–90, 620–21; Poliakov,
History of Anti-Semitism,
2:147–233; E. H. Lindo,
The History of the Jews of Spain and
Portugal
(1848; repr., New York: B. Franklin, 1970, 325–26. During the fourteenth and fifteenth century, Jews were also expelled from France and parts of Germany. In 1496, after Portugal had received a massive influx of Jewish refugees from Spain, King
Emanuel I ordered them to leave the country but then enabled most of them to stay by forcing their conversion to Christianity.

24.
Poliakov,
History of Anti-Semitism,
2:198–99; Norwood,
Strangers and Exiles,
2:30–54; Charles M. Weiss,
History of the French Protestant Refugees,
trans. Henry William Herbert (New York, 1854), vol. 1, passim; Bona Arsenault,
History of the Acadians
(Québec: Le Conseil de la vie française en Amérique, 1966), 105–242; Lawrence Henry Gipson,
The Great War for the Empire: The Years of Defeat, 1754–1757
(New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1960), 243–57; Mary Beth Norton,
The British-Americans: The Loyalist Exiles in England, 1774–1789
(Boston: Little, Brown, 1972), 8–41, 244–47; Ellen Gibson Wilson,
The Loyal Blacks
(New York: Capricorn Books, 1976).

25.
Jane Kamensky, “Limits of Resistance: The Uncertain Legacy of Ernst von Weizäcker and the Final Solution” (unpublished senior history essay, Yale University, 1985); Eugene Havesi, “Hitler’s Plan for Madagascar,”
Contemporary Jewish Record
4 (August 1941): 381–94; Karl A. Schlevnes,
The Twisted Road to Auschwitz: Nazi Policy toward German Jews, 1933–1939
(Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1970), 184–85; Celia Heller,
On the Edge of Destruction: Jews of Poland Between the Two World Wars
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1977), 136–37; Harry M. Rabinowicz,
The Legacy of Polish Jewry: A History of Polish Jews in the Inter-War Years, 1919–1939
(New York: Y. Yoseloff, 1965), 191–92; Howard Morley Sachar,
The Course of Modern Jewish History
(New York: Dell, 1977), 267–79, 355–61, 510–11; Gerald Reitlinger,
The Final Solution: The Attempt to Exterminate the Jews of Europe, 1939–1945
, 2d ed. (London: Valentine Mitchell, 1968), 79–82; Gordon A. Craig, “Schreibt un Farschreibt!”
New York Review of Books,
April 10, 1986; David Vital,
Zionism: The Crucial Phase
(Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1987), 173–74. There had been a long history of Jewish colonization projects. In the mid-nineteenth century, a number of Jewish writers began envisaging a return to the ancestral homeland in Palestine; in the 1890s, as conditions worsened in the Russian
Pale of Settlement and as increasing numbers of Eastern European Jews found a refuge in the United States, Baron
Maurice de Hirsch’s
Jewish Colonization Association advocated a mass migration to
Argentina; even
Theodor Herzl, the organizer of the
First Zionist Congress, accepted as an “emergency measure” Britain’s proposal in 1903 for a Jewish settlement in
Uganda, a concession that brought a bitter though temporary division in the Zionist movement. David Vital,
The Origins of Zionism
(Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1975); Vital,
Zionism: The Formative Years
(Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1982).

26.
For the
deportation of the French Acadians, see John Mack Faragher,
A Great and Noble Scheme: The Tragic Story of the Expulsion of the French Acadians from Their American Homeland
(New York: W. W. Norton, 2005).

27.
Lindo,
Jews of Spain and Portugal,
248–351; Graetz,
History of the Jews,
4:387–88; Lea,
Moriscos of Spain,
343–65; Butler,
Huguenots in America,
passim; Gipson,
Great War for the Empire,
289–96.

28.
Lea,
Moriscos of Spain,
328–31.

29.
Poliakov,
History of Anti-Semitism
2: 199; Graetz,
History of the Jews,
4: 387, 400.

30.
Pierre Jurieu,
The Last Efforts of Afflicted Innocence
(London, 1682), 62–71, 136; Isaac Minet, epigraph to Part I of Butler,
Huguenots in America
; Jurieu,
Lettres pastorales
(Rotterdam: Abraham Acher, 1688), 89–91, 120; Jurieu,
Monsieur Jurieu’s pastoral letters, Directed to the Protestants in France
…(London: Jo. Hindmarsh, 1688), 15 and passim; Jurieu,
The Reflections of the Reverend and Learned M. Jurieu upon the Strange and Miraculous Extasies of Isabel Vincent
(London: Richard Baldwin, 1689), 38–39; Jurieu,
Lettres pastorales,
89–91, 120.

31.
American Colonization Society [hereafter ACS],
Second Annual Report of the American Society for Colonizing the Free People of Colour of the United States
(Washington, D.C.: Davis and Force, 1819), 193; P. J. Staudenraus,
The African Colonization Movement, 1816–1865
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1961), 17; Shick,
Behold the Promised Land,
8–9; Deuteronomy 1:19–45.

32.
Deuteronomy 7:1–2, 22–24; 20:16–18; Joshua 6:21. At
Sinai, God had already promised to annihilate the
Amorites,
Hittites,
Perizzites,
Canaanites,
Hivites, and
Jebusites (Exodus 23:23–31).

33.
William W. Hallo, “Deuteronomy and Ancient Near Eastern Literature,” in
The Torah: A Modern Commentary,
ed. W. Gunther Plaut (New York: Union of American Hebrew Congregations, 1981), 1381; Walzer,
Exodus and Revolution,
143–44.

34.
Historians long assumed that the early “Calvinistic” Afrikaners invoked the Israelite model of a chosen people to legitimate their divine commission, based on Deuteronomy, to “smite” and enslave the black heathen, to flee “
Egypt” in the Great Trek, and to establish a Promised Land of white supremacy. André du Toit has carefully traced the origins of this historical interpretation, which appears to be a myth largely created by the missionary
David Livingstone but which was then appropriated, in the early twentieth century, by the Afrikaners themselves. André du Toit, “No Chosen People: The Myth of the Calvinistic Origins of Afrikaner Nationalism and Racial Ideology,”
American Historical Review
88 (October 1983): 920–52.

35.
For some of the historical distinctions drawn between blacks and Indians, see David Brion Davis,
The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture
(Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1966), 4–5, 10, 167–75, 177–81, 192–94; Winthrop D. Jordan,
White Over Black: American Attitudes toward the Negro, 1550–1812
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1968), 21–11, 89–91, 162–63, 239–40.

36.
I am aware that the eastern Indians who were removed west of the Mississippi were also placed in the role of “colonists” living in regions already inhabited. But even the
Cherokees were not expected to civilize and regenerate the entire West. Apart from criticism from opponents of removal that civilized tribes would be surrounded by violent “savages,” little thought seems to have been given to the specific cultural implications of westward removal.

37.
The Papers of
Benjamin Franklin,
ed. Leonard W. Labaree, vol. 4 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1961), 227–34. Franklin’s prejudiced remarks about German immigrants, blacks, and people of “a swarthy Complexion” were omitted from reprinted editions of the essay in the 1760s but were publicized by his political enemies.

38.
There were precedents for such colonization in the European plantations in
Palestine,
Cyprus,
Crete,
Sicily, and especially in the
Canary Islands, the
Cape Verde,
Madeira, and
São Tomé. See David Brion Davis,
Slavery and Human Progress
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), 53–63. But Irish and New World colonization was on a larger scale and involved the new objective of obtaining land for sizable European settlements.

39.
T. W. Moody, F. X. Martin, and F. J. Byrne, eds.,
A New History of Ireland,
vol. 3,
Early Modern Ireland, 1534–1691
(Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1976), 69–141, 187–232; Karl S. Bottingheimer,
Ireland and the Irish: A Short History
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1982), 73–140.

40.
Thomas More
, Utopia,
ed. Edward Surtz (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University
Press, 1964), 76, as quoted in Edmund S. Morgan,
American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia
(New York: Norton, 1975), 23.

41.
James Monroe, “First Annual Message, December 2, 1817,” in
A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents,
ed. James D. Richardson, vol. 2 (New York: Bureau of National Literature, ca.1917), 585–86.

42.
Perry Miller,
The New England Mind: The Seventeenth Century
(1939; repr., Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1954), 475, 477; Alan Heimert, “Puritanism, the Wilderness, and the Frontier,”
New England Quarterly
26 (Sept. 1953): 361–69, 376–77, 382; David D. Hall,
The Faithful Shepherd: A History of the New England Ministry in the Seventeenth Century
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1972), 86–89; Andrew Delbanco, “The Puritan Errand Re-Viewed,”
Journal of American Studies
88 (December 1984): 343–60; John Cotton,
God’s Promise to His Plantations
(London, 1630), reprinted in
Old South Leaflets
3, no. 53 (Boston, n.d.): 4–16; 2 Samuel 7:10 (King James Version). English claims to land in North America were not based on biblical precedents but on royal grants and charters. Wilcomb E. Washburn, “The Moral and Legal Justifications for Dispossessing the Indians,” in
Seventeenth-Century America: Essays in Colonial History,
ed. James Morton Smith (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1959), 16–18. It should be stressed that the parallels drawn between New England and ancient Israel generated increasing anxiety as clerical leaders contemplated the corruptions and punishments of ancient Israel. Robert Middlekauff,
The Mathers: Three Generations of Puritan Intellectuals, 1596–1728
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1971), 22–23, 105–12.

43.
Cotton,
God’s Promise,
5–7; Karen Ordahl Kupperman,
Settling with the Indians: The Meeting of English and Indian Cultures in America, 1580–1640
(Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1980), 166–68. Cotton quoted many other biblical passages that suggested a divine appointment for settling New England, such as Exodus 15:17: “when he plants them in the holy Mountaine of his Inheritance.”

44.
Cotton,
God’s Promise,
6.

45.
Genesis 21:25; 33:18–19; 34; Cotton,
God’s Promise,
14–15; Wilcomb E. Washburn, ed.,
The Indian and the White Man
(Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Books, 1964), 176–77.
Jacob’s only response to Simeon and Levi, who had murdered the males of the city, was to complain that the act would make him “odious” among the Canaanite and Perizzite inhabitants, and provoke retaliation. But much later, in his final blessing and prophecy, Jacob cursed their anger and violence (Genesis 49:5–7).

46.
Morgan,
American Slavery, American Freedom,
47. The English, like other European colonizers, always expressed a desire to convert the Indians to Christianity. But since professions of fairness and goodwill were coupled with fear and brutal violence against “savages” who were seen as the agents of Satan, historians continue to debate the meaning of Indian-white relations. See especially Francis Jennings,
The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1975); Kupperman,
Settling with the Indians
; Peter N. Carroll,
Puritanism and the Wilderness: The Intellectual Significance of the New England Frontier, 1629–1700
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1969), 11–13, 123–24, 137–39, 147–53; Alden T. Vaughan,
New England Frontier: Puritans and Indians, 1620–1675
(Boston: Little, Brown, 1965); Richard Slotkin,
Regeneration Through Violence: The Mythology of the American Frontier, 1600–1860
(Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1973); Yasuhide Kawashima,
Puritan Justice and the Indian: White Man’s Law in Massachusetts, 1630–1763
(Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1986).