The Transformation of the World (218 page)

  29
. J. de Vries,
Industrial Revolution
, esp. pp. 255f.; in much greater detail idem,
Industrious Revolution
; the concept was taken up by Bayly,
Birth of the Modern World
, pp. 51–59. Earlier, the Japanese economic historians Akira Hayami und Osamu Saito had made similar points regarding Japan: see the overview in Hayami et al.,
Economic History of Japan
, esp. chs. 1, 9–11; and Austin and Sugihara,
Labour-Intensive Industrialization
.

  30
. Ogilvie and Cerman,
Proto-Industrialization
; Mager, “Protoindustrialisierung”.

  31
. This was the case in the Tsarist Empire, on which see Gestwa, “Proto-Industrialisierung,” pp. 345ff.

  32
. This is the prudent judgment in Daunton,
Progress
, p. 169.

  33
. Especially rich in insights is M. Berg,
Age of Manufactures
.

  34
. Komlos,
Industrial Revolution
.

  35
. Findlay and O'Rourke,
Power and Plenty
, p. 313: the formulation of a new consensus in economic history.

  36
. Martin Daunton, “Society and Economic Life,” in C. Matthew,
Nineteenth Century
, pp. 41–82, at 51–55.

  37
. Verley,
La Révolution industrielle
, p. 107.

  38
. A key work here is Jeremy,
Transatlantic Industrial Revolution
.

  39
. Cameron,
New View
.

  40
. Craig and Fisher,
European Macroeconomy
, pp. 257ff., 280, 309; Pollard,
Peaceful Conquest
; Teich and Porter
, Industrial Revolution
.

  41
. A new macrohistorical theory even sees this as the ultimate cause of economic growth: “Growth is generated overwhelmingly by investments in expanding the stock of production knowledge in societies.” G. Clark,
Farewell to Alms
, pp. 197, 204–7.

  42
. Sabel and Zeitlin,
World of Possibilities
.

  43
. See Ledderose,
Ten Thousand Things
, esp. pp. 2–4; a key work on mass production in the West is Hounshell,
From the American System
.

  44
. For Germany see Herrigel,
Industrial Constructions
.

  45
. There is a good textbook account of this in Matis,
Industriesystem
, pp. 248–65. For a long time the most influential analyst was Alfred D. Chandler: see his
Visible Hand
and
Scale and Scope
. An exemplary study of a national transformation process is M. S. Smith,
Emergence
, pp. 325ff. More recently, Peter Temin and others have proposed an alternative paradigm.

  46
. I follow Werner Abelshauser, “Von der Industriellen Revolution zur Neuen Wirtschaft. Der Paradigmenwechsel im wirtschaftlichen Weltbild der Gegenwart,” in Osterhammel et al.,
Wege
, pp. 201–18.

  47
. Important here is G. Jones,
Multinationals
, a book with plenty of material on the nineteenth century, dispersed over topical chapters; see also Geoffrey Jones, “Globalization,” in: G. Jones and Zeitlin,
Oxford Handbook of Business History
, pp. 141–68, esp. 143–47.

  48
. Blackford,
Rise of Modern Business
, pp. 103ff.; Boyce and Ville,
Modern Business
, pp. 9f.

  49
. Outstanding collections are O'Brien,
Industrialisation
; Church and Wrigley,
Industrial Revolutions
; J. Horn et al.,
Reconceptualizing the Industrial Revolution
; Austin and Sugihara,
Labour-Intensive Industrialization
.

  50
. Wallerstein,
Modern World-System,
vol. 3, p. 33.

  51
. Recently in this manner: Ferguson,
Civilization
.

  52
. The fundamental work here is Pomeranz,
Great Divergence
. Less spectacular in its theses, but empirically groundbreaking, is Blussé and Gaastra,
Eighteenth Century
.

  53
. E. L. Jones,
European Miracle
, p. 160.

  54
. M. Weber,
Wissenschaftslehre
, p. 407; translation: “‘Energetic' Theories of Culture,” in:
Mid-American Review of Sociology
9:2, pp. 33–58, at 36.

  55
. C. Smith,
Science of Energy
, esp. pp. 126–69.

  56
. There is a monumental portrait of Lord Kelvin and his times in C. Smith and Wise,
Energy and Empire
. Here too—as in the case of Siemens in Germany—it is interesting to note the huge significance of the telegraph as a scientific challenge (pp. 445 ff.).

  57
. Feldenkirchen,
Siemens
, pp. 55ff.

  58
. W. König and Weber,
Netzwerke
, pp. 329–40; Smil,
Creating the Twentieth Century
, ch. 2.

  59
. The central importance of this machine for the history of technology in the nineteenth century is unmistakable in Wagenbreth et al.,
Dampfmaschine
.

  60
. Mirowski,
More Heat than Light
.

  61
. Rabinbach,
Human Motor
.

  62
. See Malanima,
Economia preindustriale
, p 98. A briefer and updated version of this fundamental book is Malanima,
Pre-Modern European Economy
, here ch. 2.

  63
. Malanima,
Uomini
, p. 49; Wrigley,
Energy
, pp. 91–101. See also two world histories of mining: C. E. Gregory,
Mining
and M. Lynch,
Mining
, both of which deal only with coal. On the energy problem and industrialization in general, see Sieferle et al.,
Ende der Fläche
, esp. chs. 4–5.

  64
. Paolo Malanima, “The Energy Basis for Early Modern Growth, 1650–1820,” in Prak,
Early Modern Capitalism
, pp. 51–68, at 67. A basic text for the history of technology is Hunter,
Industrial Power
.

  65
. Malanima,
Uomini
, p. 45 estimates that, in the early modern period, per capita use in Europe was 2 kilograms—a minimal quantity, perhaps obtained within a southern Italian perspective.

  66
. Grübler,
Technology
, p. 250. On the history of oil before 1914, see Yergin,
The Prize
, chs. 1–8.

  67
. Roche,
Le Cheval moteur
, p. 38.

  68
. Overton,
Agricultural Revolution
, p. 126; Grübler,
Technology
, p. 149 (Fig. 5.8).

  69
. Wrigley,
People
, p. 10; idem,
Energy
, with plenty of evidence from England.

  70
. M. Lynch,
Mining
, pp. 73f. On the technological and international spread of Newcomen's machines, see Wagenbreth et al.,
Dampfmaschine
, pp. 18–23.

  71
. Marsden,
Watt's Perfect Engine
, pp. 118f.

  72
. Grübler,
Technology
, p. 209 (Fig. 6.3).

  73
. Wagenbreth et al.,
Dampfmaschine
, p. 240.

  74
. Minami,
Power Revolution
, pp. 53f., 58, 331–33.

  75
. Percentages calculated from Pohl,
Aufbruch
, p. 127 (Tab. VI. 4).

  76
. See general histories of power such as Debeir et al.,
In the Servitude of Power
; Smil,
Energy
.

  77
. Trebilcock,
Industrialization
, p. 237.

  78
. W. W. Lockwood,
Economic Development of Japan
, p. 91.

  79
. The term appears in Sugihara,
Japanese Imperialism
, p. 13.

  80
. Pomeranz,
Great Divergence
, p. 62.

  81
. R. Reinhard,
Erdkunde
, p. 119.

  82
. Pohl,
Aufbruch
, p. 127, (Tab. VI.4).

  83
. Smil,
Energy
, p. 228.

  84
. Alleaume,
Industrial Revolution
, p. 341.

  85
. Verley,
La Révolution industrielle
, pp. 492f.

  86
. Wolfram Fischer, “Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft Europas, 1850–1914,” in Fischer,
Handbuch
, vol. 5, p. 149 (Tab. 42).

  87
. Bulmer-Thomas,
Economic History
, pp. 58f. For a survey of the historiography, see Haber,
How Latin America Fell Behind
; a country-by-country analysis of the Latin American export experience since 1880 is provided in Cárdenas,
Economic History
.

  88
. Klarén,
Peru
, pp. 180f.

  89
. Bulmer-Thomas,
Economic History
, p. 61.

  90
. Feinstein,
Economic History of South Africa
, pp. 90–99.

  91
. Bulmer-Thomas,
Economic History
, pp. 130–39.

  92
. There is a more detailed account in Osterhammel,
China
, pp. 188–94; on the comparison between Japan and China, see Yoda,
Foundations of Japan's Modernization
, pp. 119–25.

  93
. Köll,
From Cotton Mill
; Cochran,
Encountering Chinese Networks
; Bergère,
Capitalisme et capitalistes
, pp. 86ff.

  94
. Osterhammel,
China
, pp. 263f.; Bergère,
Capitalisme et capitalistes
, pp. 96–104.

  95
. Plenty of evidence in Riello and Roy,
How India Clothed the World
.

  96
. Inikori,
Africans
, p. 428; Parthasarathi,
Why Europe Grew Rich
, pp. 89–114.

  97
. Prasannan Parthasarathi and Ian Wendt, “Decline in Three Keys: Indian Cotton Manufacturing from the Late Eighteenth Century,” in: Riello and Parthasarathi,
Spinning World
, pp. 397–407, at 407.

  98
. Dietmar Rothermund, “The Industrialization of India: Technology and Production,” in B. B. Chaudhuri,
Economic History of India
, pp. 437–523, at 441f.; Roy,
Economic History
, pp. 123–31.

  99
. Farnie and Jeremy,
Fibre
, p. 401, see 400–413 on the early history of the Indian cotton industry.

100
. Ibid., p. 418.

101
. Roy,
Economic History
, pp. 131–33.

102
. Arcadius Kahan, “Rußland und Kongreßpolen 1860–1914,” in W. Fischer,
Handbuch
, vol. 5, pp. 512–600, at 538 (Tab. 11).

103
. Stimulating on this is Chandavarkar,
Imperial Power
, pp. 30–73.

104
. Good introductions are McClain,
Japan
, pp. 207–45; and Janet E. Hunter, “The Japanese Experience of Economic Development,” in O'Brien,
Industrialisation
, vol. 4, pp. 71–141. The specialist debates are documented in Church and Wrigley,
Industrial Revolutions
, vol. 7.

105
. Tamaki,
Japanese Banking
, pp. 51ff.

106
. Mosk,
Japanese Industrial History
, p. 97. Fundamental on the rise of the Japanese cotton industry in its international context is Howe,
Origins
, pp. 176–200.

107
. Morris-Suzuki,
Technological Transformation
, p. 73.

108
. See Pierre-Yves Donzé, “The International Patent System and the Global Flow of Technologies: The Case of Japan, 1880–1930,” in: Dejung and Petersson,
Foundations of Worldwide Economic Integration
, pp. 179–201.

109
. On both cases see the discussions of recent research in Horn et al.,
Reconceptualizing the Industrial Revolution
, chs. 7 and 9; see also Schön,
Modern Sweden
, pp. 117–26.

110
. See the summary in Sean Wilentz, “Society, Politics, and the Market Revolution, 1815–1848,” in Foner,
New American History
, pp. 61–84; and chs. 9–10 of Barney,
Companion
.

111
. This is the central thesis in Bensel,
Political Economy
.

112
. Takebayashi,
Kapitalismustheorie
, pp. 155ff. For a more general overview see Muller,
The Mind and the Market
, ch. 9 and passim.

113
. See Mommsen,
Theories of Imperialism
; Semmel,
Liberal Ideal
.

114
. Grassby,
Idea of Capitalism
, p. 1.

115
. Appleby,
Relentless Revolution
, is surprisingly reticent on global aspects; but see Frieden,
Global Capitalism
; for a theoretical perspective, Leslie Sklair, “Capitalism: Global,” in Smelser and Baltes,
International Encyclopedia
, vol. 3, pp. 1459–63.

116
. The reader will find an enormous literature on “varieties of capitalism,” little of which has a satisfactory historical background. But see Kocka,
Writing the History of Capitalism
; on the historiography of the US variant, see Sven Beckert, “History of American Capitalism,” in: Foner and McGirr,
American History Now
, pp. 314–35.

117
. Two books published at the beginning of the recent debate on capitalism, and sharply opposed in their judgements, are still stimulating: P. L. Berger,
Capitalist Revolution,
and Heilbroner,
Nature and Logic
. The
longue durée
is (in critical opposition to Braudel) carefully formulated in Arrighi,
Long Twentieth Century
. An excellent starting point for further theoretical discussion is Richard Swedberg, “The Economic Sociology of Capitalism: An Introduction and Agenda,” in: Nee and Swedberg,
Economic Sociology
, pp. 3–40.