Vampires (6 page)

Polidori’s vampire was not only physically alluring, he also had a ‘winning tongue’, and his ‘apparent hatred of vice’ – he routinely ignored all the women who threw themselves at him – made him even more fascinating.

In creating his aristocratic vampire, Polidori set a template for virtually all the vampire figures that followed. Bram Stoker, author of the seminal
Dracula
, which was published in 1897, drew heavily on his idea of the vampire as a charming, intelligent, refined, and sophisticated man about town, and this incarnation of the vampire went on to become a staple of the horror genre up to the present day.

In the Middle Ages, the timing of a baby’s birth had much significance – negative as well as positive. In the same way, details of its appearance could have all kinds of mysterious meanings. Its lineage was also a matter of great importance: for example, the seventh son of the seventh son might be considered to have supernatural powers, or other extraordinary features. As the vampire myth spread from the Balkans and took hold of the popular imagination in Europe, these superstitions about the circumstances of a baby’s birth became entwined with the vampire myth, so that when a new baby came into the world, it would be checked for tell-tale signs, and possibly rejected as a result.

First and foremost were birth defects and abnormalities, some of which would be considered normal enough today. For example, if the baby was born in a caul, it would be viewed as suspicious. A caul is a membrane from the amniotic sac which separates the baby from the wall of its mother’s womb. At birth, instead of leaving this caul behind, the baby occasionally emerges wrapped inside it. Today, a doctor or midwife usually breaks this membrane during the mother’s labour, if it does not rupture of its own accord during the process; thus babies born in the caul are less common now than they used to be.

In health terms, being born in a caul poses no risks, and is positively beneficial to the baby, in that it is shielded from infection until the caul peels off spontaneously. In medieval peasant societies with little access to medical help, it was noted that babies born in the caul were often stronger and healthier than most, and had a better chance of survival. A membrane strong enough to withstand the process of labour was seen as protective. For this reason, the caul was seen as a sign of good luck, and could signify that the child would be a successful individual in later life. In many cases, the caul would be kept as an heirloom: the midwife would rub some paper on the baby’s head, so that the membrane would transfer onto the paper, and then present it to the mother.

The caul was also thought to have special powers, for example to protect against black magic, to defend the harvest, and to ensure fertility. Cauls were also thought to protect the bearer from drowning: in medieval times, women would sell cauls to sailors for this reason. There was also a belief that a caulbearer could prophesy the future, especially through dreams. Twins born with a caul would be believed to be protected by a guardian angel throughout life. In Iceland, the baby born with a caul was said to have a fairy companion, known as a ‘fylgiar’, who would serve it throughout life, even foretelling its death and travelling with it to Valhallah, the home of the dead.

All this changed, however, when the vampire myth came to be popularized. If a baby was born with a caul, it was feared that it might become a vampire. The caul would be removed immediately in case the baby tried to eat it, which was highly unlikely, and instead of being kept as a valuable talisman, the caul would be destroyed as quickly as possible.

Another disturbing sign of possible vampirism was the baby born with teeth. In most cases, babies are born with the tooth buds, as they are called, inside the gums. However, in some cases (about one in every 2,000), babies are born with what are called ‘natal teeth’. These are the infant’s primary teeth that have come through the gums early. It is extremely rare for a baby to have a full set of these teeth, but up to seven or eight teeth have been observed. In most instances, the natal teeth pose no real problems, although they may be removed if they are loose, to prevent the baby swallowing one and choking on it. The teeth may also cause feeding problems, as the baby may bite the mother’s nipple. Today, it is generally considered best to leave the teeth to grow naturally, as early removal can lead to difficulties later on, when all the teeth push through the gums.

It is not difficult to see why a baby born with such teeth might be feared as a vampire. In many cases, only the two incisors at either side of the top gum are present, giving the baby the distinct appearance of a small vampire. When the baby started to feed, and accidentally bit the mother’s nipple, this would have been seen as further evidence that a vampire child had been born.

Any kind of birth defect or abnormality would also, in medieval times, be taken as a sign that the child might be a vampire: for example, a third nipple, which occurs in about one in 18 people (though many of these extra nipples look like moles, and are never noticed). The nipple is usually found along either of two ‘milk lines’ on the stomach, running from under the armpit, through the nipples on the chest, and down into the groin. These ‘milk lines’ mimic the arrangement of nipples on the underbelly of female animals such as wolves. They may vary in degree from a simple patch of hair to a miniature milk-bearing mammary gland. In some cases, nipples appear on the arms, on the legs, and even, very rarely, on the feet.

Once again, one can imagine why such extra nipples might be taken as a sign that a newborn might not be fully human, but could be a witch, a vampire, or a werewolf. There are instances of this belief in history. For example, Anne Boleyn, the second wife of the English monarch Henry VIII, was rumoured to have a third nipple. There were even stories that she had a third breast, which is another known, but rarer, condition. However, we do not know whether this story is true, since in those days, such abnormalities were considered to be the mark of a witch, and since Anne Boleyn was such a controversial figure (King Henry had divorced his first wife to marry her), these rumours may well have been entirely without basis.

Other traits in babies were also considered to be signs that they were or might become vampires. In Slavic folklore, children born with red hair and blue eyes were suspect, as were babies born with a lot of hair on their bodies. Birthmarks were also thought of as unlucky and a possible sign of future depravity. Sadly, such babies might be rejected by their mothers, or if not, the nursing pair might be shunned by the rest of the community. This is one of the more negative aspects of the vampire cult, in that it was used to persecute individuals and families who suffered from physical abnormalities, or who looked unusual in any way. Thus, traits that might at one time have been seen as distinctive, conferring high status, took on a darker significance as signs that an evil vampire had come into the world.

In order to ward off evil, peasant families would employ a number of superstitious rituals. For example, when a family member died, the clocks in the house would be stopped, and mirrors covered. There was a strong belief that the spirit of a corpse could become trapped in a mirror, or that if a living person was reflected in a mirror with the corpse, they would die soon after. Underlying this taboo was the idea that the image of a person in a mirror is the image of their soul. (When vampires look in the mirror, there is no reflection, because they have lost their souls.) Mourners would also be warned not to let their shadows fall over the corpse, because this, too, might have the unfortunate effect of sparking an evil spirit into life.

In addition, families used many ‘apotropaics’ (items designed to turn away evil spirits). Holy water would be sprinkled over the threshold of the house, and strings of garlic hung up around the kitchen. The crucifix and rosary were considered to be powerful deterrents to vampires. Wild roses were also thought to have magical properties that could help to ward off evil spirits.

In the graveyard, poppy seeds were often sprinkled around the grave after a burial. Legend had it that when a vampire woke up and decided go on the prowl, it would first have to pick up all the poppy seeds around the grave, so this was a way of slowing down its progress. It was also believed that if a body was buried at a crossroads instead of a graveyard, this might confuse the vampire, who would head off in the wrong direction should it decide to go looking for victims.

Other rather obscure beliefs were commonly held, such as the idea that pregnant women should eat salt so as to prevent giving birth to a vampire. Burying a body with a piece of iron in its hand, or placing a sprig of hawthorn in the coffin, were also trusted remedies for vampirism.