Voices of Islam (166 page)

ZALAL AL-FUQARA’:
A TREATISE ON SUFI ETHICS

This section is an overview of a treatise on Sufi ethics by the tenth-century Sufi Abu ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Sulami.
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This text, a rich source of the teachings of the early saint-exemplars of Sufi m, illustrates the centrality of the ethical teachings that Sufis derived from the Qur’an, the Sunna, and the tradition of
adab.
These values continue to resonate within Islamic society

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Voices of Life: Family, Home, and Society

today. The full title of this work in translation is
The Stumbling of Those Who Aspire and the Ethical Comportment of the Folk Who Have Chosen Spiritual Poverty as Their Path.
21
The shortened title of the work,
Zalal al-fuqara’,
means ‘‘The Stumbling of the Poor.’’
Faqir
(pl.
fuqara’
) is an Arabic term that for the Sufi referred to the practice of spiritual poverty (
faqr
). A
faqir
is a practitioner of spiritual poverty, and the term was often used as a synonym for ‘‘Sufi.’’ For Sulami, all of the spiritual virtues admired by Sufis are contained in spiritual poverty. This is because spiritual poverty exemplifies the effacement of the ego-self that is central to the concept of
adab
as spiritual comportment: ‘‘This
faqr
or spiritual poverty is nothing other than a
vacare Deo,
an emptiness for God; it begins with the rejection of passions and its crown is the effacement of the ‘I’ before the Divinity. The nature of this virtue clearly shows the inverse analogy that links the human symbol with its divine archetype: what is emptiness on the side of the creature is plenitude on the side of the Creator.’’
22

Zalal al-fuqara’
is a work of formative Sufi m by a spiritual mentor who emphasizes the ethical nature of spiritual conduct. The text’s central theme is spiritual poverty (
faqr
), which from the Islamic perspective is an intrinsic attribute of all created beings and the active principle that underlies all ethical conduct. For Sulami, the prerequisite for the realization of
faqr
as a spiritual discipline was the realization of one’s utter effacement before God. From the Sufi perspective,
faqr
is the spiritual attitude that resonates most distinctly with humanity’s state of servanthood (
‘ubudiyya
) before God. As stated in the Qur’an, the reason behind God’s creation of humankind is servanthood: ‘‘I only created human beings and the
jinn
in order to serve me’’ (Qur’an 51:67). Servanthood and
faqr
relate to one another as do the two compli- mentary poles of
adab,
ethical conduct, on the one hand, and
akhlaq,
the inner awareness of morality and ethics, on the other hand.
Zalal al-fuqara’
is thus a practical guide to the Sufi way that relates human dispositions and inner attitudes to the outward aspects of ethical conduct.

In the Introduction to
Zalal al-fuqara’,
Sulami presents the fundamental precepts of spiritual poverty, which are derived from the Qur’anic concept of servanthood, humble submission to God’s will. He reasons that utter need (
faqr
) is one of the traits of servanthood: a servant is capable of nothing on his own (Qur’an 16:75). In the state of servanthood, there is neither arrogance nor pride; therefore, anyone who claims a spiritual state or station for oneself is far from realizing true servanthood. In the remainder of the Introduction, Sulami discusses the norms of spiritual poverty and the accom- panying ethical attitudes that are foundational to this mode of Sufi practice. These norms are founded upon an inward attitude of self-effacement and an outward commitment to serving others. The essence of spiritual poverty is to empty the innermost recesses of the soul of the world and all that is in it, while always being in a state of utter need for God. Sulami calls this state ‘‘praiseworthy
faqr.
’’ From the practice’s point of view, the disciple does

Sufi Foundations of the Ethics of Social Life in Islam
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not abandon his daily profession, nor does he don a patched frock (
muraqqa‘a
), nor does he fl t his poverty. Such an outward show of poverty reduces
faqr
to mere destitution, a state that is not fitting for those who have found sufficiency in God. Rather, the true
faqir
passes unnoticed among people: only those who are aware of his state know him (Qur’an 2:273). The true
faqir
makes his state of need known only to God. Humility thus becomes an ethical precept that prevents the disciple from being judgmental of others, for he regards all others as superior to himself. From this perspective, anyone that finds satisfaction in one’s own spiritual state or pious act is only displaying gross ignorance.

Sulami then contrasts the true
faqir
to the pretender to poverty, the deluded aspirant who forsakes the world and turns from it but condemns those who follow worldly pursuits and regards other human beings with scorn. Having thus elucidated the two poles of conduct in the practice of poverty, Sulami then concludes his Introduction by affirming that true
faqr
is to be attained only through inner detachment from the world and outer commitment to the Shari‘a. Its incumbent attitudes are: reposing in God’s knowledge of one’s state, sobriety, humility, relinquishing one’s claims over others, abandonment of one’s natural inclinations, belittlement of oneself while honoring others, nobility of character, detachment from worldly sustenance, and reliance upon God, the One Who Suffices:

One attains to the reality of
faqr
only after he enters therein by its principles and resides therein by its required comportment. Its precept of entry is to cast off all attachments [to outward things] from the innermost soul while putting formal religious knowledge into practice. The precepts of correct conduct [in
faqr
] are repose [in the knowledge that God knows our every state], sobriety, humility, preference of others over ourselves, relinquishing the self’s claims, abandonment of natural inclinations, being disdainful of the self while honoring people, no bility of character, detachment from sustenance, and trust in the One Who Suffices, which is sincere reliance on His guarantee.
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In the body of
Zalal al-fuqara’,
Sulami discusses in detail the ethical principles, attitudes, and corresponding modes of conduct that he dealt with in general terms in the Introduction.
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This treatise is a product of the process of dialogue that went on between the textual sources of Islam and the applied guidance of the saint-exemplars of Sufism. The nature of its dis- course is interpretive, in that it contextualizes within a practical methodology of inner and outer comportment the ethical ideals that are expressed in the Qur’an and Hadith. Given the wealth of interpretive possibilities afforded by these texts, it is not surprising to fi in such works a preponderance of Sufi sayings in comparison with the citations of the Qur’an and Hadith.

Sulami cites more than 60 narratives about the saint-exemplars of Sufi

but only 10 Qur’anic verses and four Hadith texts. However, this apparent imbalance does not refl a lack of concern by Sulami for the centrality of the Qur’an and the Sunna as sources of Islamic tradition.

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Voices of Life: Family, Home, and Society

The necessity of close compliance with the Qur’an and the Sunna is a theme that Sulami returns to repeatedly in his explication of the precepts of spiritual poverty. He writes, ‘‘The best [comportment] of a
faqir
is [his] eth- ical interaction with others, following the example of the Messenger of God in the Shari‘a and actualizing intimate knowledge of God with regard to the Absolute Truth (
al-Haqq
).’’
25
The following statement by Yahya ibn Mu‘adh al-Razi (d. 864–865
CE
), which is reproduced in Sulami’s treatise, is representative of the way in which early Sufis based their ethical and devo- tional methods on practices outlined in the Prophetic Sunna. When asked at what point a
faqir
may claim to be truly on the path of Sufism, he replied:

Not until he has prevailed over his ego-self in the following ways. He completely abandons the world, even while holding those who seek it in respect. At all times he is occupied with mandatory acts of devotion, devotional acts in the Sunna, or supererogatory acts. He is too preoccupied with his devotions to be concerned with whether he is accepted or rejected by others. He accumulates nothing. There is neither deceit in his heart nor malice toward any person and his devo- tions are not sullied by people’s awareness of him. People’s praise does not influ- ence him and he would not slacken [in his devotions] were they to shun him.
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A salient aspect of
Zalal al-fuqara’
is the manner in which Sulami contex- tualizes the ethical ideals expressed in Islamic scripture within a framework of practical guidance that emphasizes the value of ethical practice. He cites Abu ‘Uthman al-Hiri (d. 910
CE
) as saying, ‘‘Ethical conduct is the mainstay of the poor in God (
faqir
) and the dignity of the wealthy in God (
ghani
).’’
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One of the results of ethical conduct is compassion and empathy for others who share the same trials and tribulations in life. According to the Sufi Abu ‘Abdallah al-Jala’ (d. 918
CE
), ‘‘When a servant has realized the state of true
faqr,
he dons the raiment of contentment [in God], and in so doing increases his compassion for others, such that he conceals their faults, prays for them, and shows them mercy.’’
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For Sulami, the most essential inner attitude upon which ethical conduct is founded is disdain for the ego-self (
nafs
). Disdain for the ego-self and its abasement is a theme that has long been counted among the distinctive teachings of Sufi This principle is well represented in
Zalal al-fuqara’.
Abu ‘Uthman al-Hiri is reported as saying, ‘‘Everything that pleases the ego-self, be it obedience or disobedience, is passion (
shahwa
).’’
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Abu Ya‘qub al-Nahrajuri (d. 941–942
CE
) said: ‘‘Among the signs of the one whose state God has taken in hand is that he attests to the inadequacy of his sincerity, the heedlessness of his invocation, the imperfection of his truthful- ness, the laxness of his discipline, and his lack of observance of what is required of spiritual poverty. Thus, all of his states are insuffi ient to him, both in his aspiration and in his [spiritual] journeying. He always feels his need for God until he is extinguished from all else but Him. For such a one, men’s fortunes, as well as praise and blame have fallen away.’’
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The second distinctive trait of Sufi ethical practice for Sulami was the rejec- tion of all pretensions to piety or advanced spiritual states. Disclaiming one’s prerogative to special treatment is the foundation stone of service. Discussing this principle, Sulami writes: ‘‘It is obligatory for a sincere
faqir
to use the outward aspect of each of his moments to assist others, while not seeking as- sistance from them.’’
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The disclaiming of all individual pretension is also an important step in the process of orienting oneself toward God. Abu ‘Uthman al-Hiri said, ‘‘Fear of God will bring you to God, pride and self- satisfaction will sever you from God, and scorn for other people will affl you with a disease for which there is no cure.’’
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Among the fruits of avoiding spiritual pretentiousness was freedom from judging the states and acts of others. Addressing this issue, Hiri’s disciple Mahfuz ibn Mahmud (d. 916
CE
) said: ‘‘Whoever gives undue regard to the virtues of his own soul will be afflicted by the vices of people, but whoever looks to the faults of his soul will be freed from mentioning the vices of people.’’
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Perhaps the most outstand- ing result of the Sufi disdain for pretentiousness was the flexibility it offered to traditional Islamic legal discourse. The following statement by Ruwaym (d. 915
CE
), a revered Sufi of Baghdad, gives eloquent expression to this aspect of Sufi ethics: ‘‘Part of the wisdom of the
faqir
is in allowing a broad interpretation of the Law where his brothers are concerned, while enjoining strictness upon himself. This is because granting latitude to them is in accor- dance with religious teachings, while calling oneself to account assiduously is among the precepts of ethical accountability.’’
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If humility and self-effacement are inward consequences of disdain for the ego-self, an outward consequence would be a life of anonymity among the crowd, of hiding the true nature of one’s inner states. For Sulami, this practice is another element in the process of spiritual transformation. He considered hiding one’s inner states as a key to sincerity, which is a central principle of ethical conduct. In the following statement, he expresses the consequences of ostentation and through inverse reasoning demonstrates the necessity of anonymity in the realization of sincerity:

Were a
faqir
to forsake an outward means of livelihood, he would surely be driven to importunity in seeking aid.
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Were he to don the patched frock or show outward signs of spiritual poverty, he would likewise be showing importu- nity. Were he to make a show of his spiritual poverty before the wealthy, he would only show [his] esteem for the world and its place in his heart; for were there no esteem in his heart for the world, he would not flaunt his renunciation of it before others. Of such a one it has been said, ‘‘Verily, for one who esteems the world, God has no esteem.’’
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