Why Beautiful People Have More Daughters: From Dating, Shopping, and Praying to Going to War and Becoming a Billionaire–Two Evolutionary Psychologists Explain Why We Do What We Do (27 page)
Authors: Alan S. Miller,Satoshi Kanazawa
Tags: #Itzy, #Kickass.so
3
Brown (1991).
4
Bouchard et al. (1999); Koenig et al. (2005).
5
Alper (2001); Hamer (2004); Newberg, D'Aquili, and Rause (2002).
[6]
There have been a few studies that conclude that religious and spiritual people live longer than nonbelievers (Hall 2006; Miller and Thoresen 2003; McCullough et al. 2000). However, no one has yet either specified the
proximate
biochemical mechanism of
how
religiosity increases longevity or explained the
ultimate
reason
why
it does. These studies are also of limited credibility, since they are either funded by the John Templeton Foundation (Miller and Thoresen 2003; McCullough et al. 2000) or conducted by an Episcopal priest (Hall 2006).
7
Kirkpatrick (2005, pp. 214â39).
8
Atran (2002); Boyer (2001); Guthrie (1993); Kirkpatrick (2005).
[9]
Once again, if you are familiar with elementary statistics, you recognize the false-positive and false-negative errors as “Type I” and “Type II” errors.
10
Haselton and Nettle (2006).
11
Guthrie (1993).
12
Atran (2002).
[13]
In other words, according to these theorists, religion is the result of humans attributing an intention to, and thereby employing theory of mind for, inanimate physical objects. McNamara (2001) suggests that autistics, who lack the theory of mind module, may thus be less likely to be religious than non-autistics. To the best of our knowledge, no one has compared the levels of religiosity among autistics and nonautistics.
14
Haselton (2003); Haselton and Buss (2000).
[15]
Haselton and Nettle (2006). The fact that Kirkpatrick's theory of the evolution of religion has much to do with Haselton's error management theory may not be entirely coincidental. Haselton was once a student of Kirkpatrick's, although it was Haselton who originally introduced Kirkpatrick to evolutionary psychology (Kirkpatrick 2005, pp. xâxi).
[16]
In Bangladesh, very slightly more men believe in God (98.7% vs. 98.5%) and identify themselves as religious (84.1% vs. 83.7%) than women. In the Dominican Republic, more men believe in God than women (95.2% vs. 90.9%), but the sample size is small (411 respondents). In Montenegro, more men believe in God (66.3% vs. 63.9%) and identify themselves as religious (50.9% vs. 47.9%) than women, but the sample size is even smaller (209 for the first question, 225 for the second).
17
Miller and Stark (2002).
18
Mol (1985); Suziedalis and Potvin (1981).
19
Glock, Ringer, and Babbie (1967); Walter and Davie (1998).
20
Azzi and Ehrenberg (1975); Iannaccone (1990); Luckmann (1967); Martin (1967).
21
Miller and Stark (2002).
22
de Vaus and McAllister (1987); Steggarda (1993).
23
Cornwall (1988); de Vaus (1984); Stark (1992).
24
Haselton and Nettle (2006).
25
Kanazawa and Still (2000c).
26
Campbell (1995, 1999, 2002).
27
Miller and Hoffmann (1995); Miller and Stark (2002); Stark (2002); Sherkat (2002).
28
Miller (2000).
29
Gambetta (2005, pp. 259â63).
30
Kanazawa and Still (2000c).
[31]
The top 20 most polygynous nations according to these scores are: 1. Anguilla, 1. Antigua and Barbuda, 1. Bahamas, 1. Barbados, 1. Equitorial Guinea, 1. Gabon, 1. Haiti, 1. Lesotho, 1. St. Vincent/Grenadines, 1. Swaziland (all of which have the maximum polygyny score of 3.000), 11. Morocco (2.9700), 12. Liberia (2.9000), 13. Nigeria (2.8175), 14. Congo (former Zaire) (2.8095), 15. Sierra Leone (2.8000), 16. Chad, 16. Nicaragua (both 2.7500), 18. Niger (2.7250), 19. Togo (2.6667), and 20. Mozambique (2.6664). Only Morocco and Nicaragua are outside of sub-Saharan Africa and the Ca rib bean.
32
Atran (2003); Berrebi (2003).
33
O'Hanlon and Campbell (2007).
34
Kalyvas (2005, pp. 96â7).
35
Coogan (1995, pp. 513â21).
36
Atran (2003, p. 1538); Friedman (2002, pp. 144â5).
37
Krueger and Maleckova (2003, p. 129).
38
Friedman (2002, pp. 13â4, 19â20).
39
Hechter (2000).
40
Coleman (1988).
41
Olson (1965).
42
Kanazawa (2001a).
43
Whitmeyer (1997).
44
Dawkins (1976).
45
Pinker (2002).
46
Kurzban, Tooby, and Cosmides (2001).
47
Miller (2000).
48
Townsend and Levy (1990).
49
Dunbar, Duncan, and Marriott (1997).
50
Kanazawa (2000, 2003c); Miller (1998, 1999).
51
Lycett and Dunbar (2000).
52
Low (1979).
53
Cunningham et al. (1995); Jones (1996); Jones and Hill (1993); Maret and Harling (1985); Morse and Gruzen (1976); Thakerar and Iwawaki (1979).
54
Langlois et al. (1987); Samuels and Ewy (1985).
55
Buss (1999, p. Chapter 6).
56
Kanazawa (2000, 2003c).
57
Dugatkin (1998).
58
Grant and Green (1998).
59
Höglund et al. (1995).
60
Galef and White (1998).
61
Dugatkin (2000).
[62]
While an appealing idea, the only experimental test of this “wedding-ring effect” has not been supportive (Uller and Johansson 2003), so this must still be treated as an interesting but speculative idea.
63
Kanazawa and Frerichs (2001).
64
Kanazawa and Frerichs (2001, p. 327, table 2).
Conclusion
1
Miller (2000, pp. 217â9).
2
Hamer et al. (1993).
3
Hamer and Copeland (1994, pp. 183â4).
4
Trivers (personal communication).
5
Camperio-Ciani, Corna, and Capiluppi (2004).
6
Hamer and Copeland (1994, pp. 182â3); Miller (2000, pp. 217â9).
[7]
Sulloway has had a truly maverick academic career. Having received a PhD in History of Science at Harvard and having been mentored by the great evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr, Sulloway has never held a regular academic appointment, and has instead supported himself and his scientific research entirely through research grants and fellowships, including a MacArthur Prize Fellowship (i.e., “the genius award”). He has written on the history of science, psychology, and evolutionary biology, and has conducted research at Harvard, MIT, the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences at Stanford, and the University of California, Berkeley, where he is currently Visiting Scholar and Professor (Sulloway, personal communication).
[8]
In 1960, Judith Rich Harris was a graduate student in psychology at Harvard. After receiving her master's degree, she was dismissed from the program by the then acting department chair, George A. Miller, who thought Harris was not smart enough to earn a PhD. Thirty-five years later, while supporting herself by writing psychology textbooks, Harris worked on her group socialization theory of development and published it in the prestigious academic journal
Psychological Review
. In 1997, her article won an award from the American Psychological Association, the George A. Miller Award for an Outstanding Recent Article in General Psychology(Harris 1998, pp. xiâxviii).
9
Sulloway (1996).
10
Harris (1995, 1998).
11
Rowe (1994).
12
Harris (1998, pp. 365â78); Sulloway (2000).
13
Kohler, Rodgers, and Christensen (1999); Rodgers, Kohler, Kyvik, and Christensen (2001); Rodgers et al. (2001).
14
Daly and Wilson (1985).
[15]
Daly and Wilson (1995). Probably the most common cause of mothers killing their biological children is mental illness. With its emphasis on universal human nature, however, evolutionary psychology is ill equipped to explain behavior caused by mental illness and other “abnormality.”
16
Daly and Wilson (1988, pp. 37â93).
17
Shields and Shields (1983); Thornhill and Palmer (2000).
18
Yamaguchi and Ferguson (1995).
19
Saad and Peng (2006).
20
Kanazawa (2006c).
21
Buss (1989).
22
Schmitt (2003, 2004).
23
Wright (1994, p. 84).
24
Low, personal communication.
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