Antony and Cleopatra (59 page)

⁸
Dio 50. 10. 1.

⁹
Dio 50. 11. 3; for insights into problems of long-range operations in the Roman period, see B. Rankov, ‘The Second Punic War at Sea', in T. Cornell, B. Rankov & P. Sabin (eds.),
The Second Punic War: A Reappraisal
(1996), pp.49–56, esp. 49–52.

¹⁰
Plutarch,
Antony
62, with Pelling (1988), pp.271–272, for the double meaning of ‘ladle'; Dio 50. 11. 4–12. 3, and 50. 17. for the quote, taken from the Loeb translation by E. Cary.

¹¹
Plutarch,
Antony
63, Dio 50. 12. 4–13. 4, with Pelling in
CAH
²
X, pp.55–56, Osgood (2006), pp.372–373, and Carter (1970), pp.203–213. A well-illustrated account of the campaign is provided in S. Sheppard,
Actium: Downfall of Antony and Cleopatra,
Osprey Campaign Series 211 (2009).

¹²
Dio 50. 13. 5, Velleius Paterculus 2. 84. 2, Plutarch,
Antony
68.

¹³
Plutarch,
Antony
63, Dio 50. 13. 5–14. 4.

¹⁴
Plutarch,
Antony 59,
63, Velleius Paterculus 2. 84. 2, Dio 50. 13. 6, 14. 3, with Osgood (2006), pp.372 –373, and Syme (1960), p. 296, on the defections; see Osgood (2006), pp.263–264 for the career of Sarmentus, who also appears in Horace,
Satires
1.

¹⁵
Dio 50. 13. 7–8.

¹⁶
On numbers see Pelling (1988), pp.276–277, W. Murray & P. Petsas,
Octavian ‘s Campsite Memorial for the Actian War,
Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 79. 4 (1989), pp.34–57, 95–114 and 133–134.

¹⁷
See Carter (1970), pp.213–227.

¹⁸
Pliny,
NH
32. 2 tells a bizarre story of Antony's flagship being halted in the water by a small fish gripping onto its hull.

¹⁹
For the battle see Plutarch,
Antony
64–66, 68, Dio 50. 14. 4–35. 6, with Osgood (2006), pp.374–375 and 380–382, Grant (1972), pp.206–215, and Pelling (1988), pp.278–289, and D. Harrington, ‘The Battle of Actium – a Study in Historiography',
Ancient World
9. 1–2 (1984), pp.59–64.

²⁰
Plutarch,
Antony
68, Dio 51. 1. 4–3. 1, Velleius Paterculus 2. 85. 5–6, with L. Keppie,
The Making of the Roman Army
(1984), pp.134–136.

²¹
Plutarch,
Antony
66; Josephus,
Against Apion
2. 59 is the earliest author to accuse Cleopatra of treachery, and is followed by Dio 50. 33. 1–5.

XXIX ‘AF
INE
D
EED
'

¹
Dio 51. 1, 5, and Plutarch,
Antony
67, 69 with C. Pelling (ed.),
Plutarch: Life of Antony
(1988), pp.285– 287, 289, including discussions of the similarities to his account of Pompey's escape from Pharsalus; on forces see P. Brunt,
Italian Manpower 225
BC—AD
14
(1971), pp.500–507, where it is argued that even if Octavian did not have many more legions than Antony, these were significantly larger in size; on Pinarius see R. Syme,
The Roman Revolution
(1960), pp.128 and 66.

²
Dio 51. 5. 2–5, Josephus,
Against Apion
2. 58; on the music and garlands when her ships entered the harbour see the comment in G. Goudchaux, ‘Cleopatra's Subtle Religious Strategy', in S. Walker & P. Higgs (eds.),
Cleopatra of Egypt: From History to Myth
(2001), pp.128–141, esp. 140; J. Tyldesley,
Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt
(2009), p. 181, doubts the executions on the implausible basis that Cleopatra needed the support of the Alexandrians; J. Fletcher,
Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend
(2008), p. 297, suggests the temples willingly gave the queen their treasures; M. Grant,
Cleopatra
(1972), pp.217–218 and p. 275, n.7, on the priests of Upper Egypt. The source is Pseudo-Acro's commentary on Horace,
Odes
1. 37, 23.

³
Strabo,
Geog.
17. 1. 9, Plutarch,
Antony
69–70, with Pelling (1988), pp.91– 93, and G. Grimm, ‘Alexandria in the Time of Cleopatra', in S. Walker & S. Ashton (eds.),
Cleopatra Reassessed
(2003), pp.45 –49, esp. 49.

⁴
Plutarch,
Antony
68.

⁵
Plutarch,
Antony
71, Dio 51. 2. 1–6, 4. 1, 5. 1, Josephus,
AJ
15. 183–198; in general see J. Osgood,
Caesar's Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire
(2006), pp.375–378 and 385–390.

⁶
Dio 51. 3. 1–4. 8.

⁷
See Pelling (1988), pp.289– 291, and Osgood (2006), pp.387–388, citing
ILS
2672 for fortifications on the Spanish coast.

⁸
Dio 51. 6. 3–7. 1, Plutarch,
Antony
69, who says that Antony was fifty-three and Cleopatra thirty-nine when they died. Since the ancients did not have a zero, this would imply that each was in fact a year younger. However, their probable dates of birth make this unlikely. Plutarch,
Antony
71, with Pelling (1988), pp.295–296.

⁹
Plutarch,
Antony
71.

¹⁰
Plutarch,
Antony
71, Dio 51. 6. 1–2.

¹¹
Dio 51. 6. 4–8. 7, Plutarch,
Antony
72–73, with Pelling (1988), pp.297–300.

¹²
Dio 51. 7. 2–7, Josephus,
AJ
15. 195.

¹³
Plutarch,
Antony
74.

¹⁴
For Gallus, see Syme (1960), pp.75 and 252–253.

¹⁵
Dio 51. 9. 1–6, Plutarch,
Antony
74, with Pelling (1988), p. 300.

¹⁶
Dio 51. 10. 1–4, Plutarch,
Antony
74.

¹⁷
Plutarch,
Antony
75, with Pelling (1988), pp.302–304.

¹⁸
Dio 51. 10. 4–5, Plutarch,
Antony
76; see Grant (1972), pp.222–223, who doubts treachery and sees the defections as due to the hopelessness of the situation.

¹⁹
Plutarch,
Antony
76, Dio 51. 10. 5–7, with Grimm (2003), pp.48–49, on the mausoleum's location and design.

²⁰
Dio 51. 10. 6–9, Plutarch,
Antony
76–77, with Pelling (1988), pp.305–308; see also Grant (1972), pp.222–223, and Tyldesley (2009), p. 186; Fletcher (2008), pp.309–310 suggests that Cleopatra believed Antony was dead before going to the tomb.

²¹
Plutarch,
Antony
80, Dio 51. 16. 4, with Suetonius,
Augustus
89. 1, which refers to his association with Areius and other scholars, but also his limited fluency in Greek.

²²
Dio 51. 11. 1 –4, and 14. 3 for the eunuch, Plutarch,
Antony
78–79.

²³
On Antony's funeral see Tyldesley (2009), pp.195–196, and Fletcher (2008), p. 312.

²⁴
Dio 51. 11. 3, 5–13., Plutarch,
Antony
82–83, with Pelling (1988), pp.313–316, Florus 2. 21. 9–10.

²⁵
Plutarch,
Antony
84.

²⁶
Grant (1972), pp.225–226, argues that it was better for Octavian to let the queen die.

²⁷
Strabo,
Geog.
17. 1. 10.

²⁸
Dio 51. 13. 4–14. 6, Plutarch,
Antony
84–86, with Pelling (1988), pp.316–322, Velleius Paterculus 2. 87. 1; see also Grant (1972), pp.224–228, Tyldesley (2009), pp.189–195, Fletcher (2008), pp.314–319, E. Rice,
Cleopatra
(1999), pp.86–91, P. Green,
Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age
(1990), pp.679–682, and G. Hölbl,
A History of the Ptolemaic Empire
(trans. T. Saavedra) (2001), pp.248–249.

C
ONCLUSION: HISTORY AND THE
G
REAT
R
OMANCE

¹
Dio 51. 14. 3–4, 15. 1, 16. 3–5, Suetonius,
Augustus
17. 3–5.

²
Dio 51. 16. 5 –17. 1, 6–8, Plutarch,
Antony
86, with C. Pelling (ed.),
Plutarch: Life of Antony
(1988), p. 323, and G. Goudchaux, ‘Cleopatra's Subtle Religious Strategy', in S. Walker & P. Higgs (eds.),
Cleopatra of Egypt: From History to Myth
(2001), pp.128–141, esp. p. 140; Pliny,
NH
9. 121 on the pearl, with E. Gruen, ‘Cleopatra in Rome: Fact and Fantasies', in D. Braund & C. Gill (eds.),
Myths, History and Culture in Republican Rome: Studies in Honour of T. P. Wiseman
(2003), pp.257–274, esp. 59.

³
Velleius Paterculus 2. 86. 1–3, 87. 2–3, R. Syme,
The Roman Revolution
(1960), pp.296– 297 and 299–300, and J. Osgood,
Caesar's Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire
(2006), pp.276– 280.

⁴
Dio 51. 15. 5, Plutarch,
Antony
81.

⁵
Plutarch,
Antony
81, Dio 51. 15. 5 –6; quote from Homer,
Iliad 2.
203–207 (Latimore translation, University of Chicago, 1951).

⁶
Dio 51. 1. 5–9, Horace,
Odes
1. 37, the famous
nunc est bibendum;
see also Osgood (2006), p. 385.

⁷
Dio 51. 15. 6–7, Plutarch,
Antony
87.

⁸
For example, Appian,
BC
4. 130, Plutarch,
Antony 22.

⁹
For studies of Cleopatra in later culture see L. Hughes-Hallett,
Cleopatra: Queen, Lover, Legend
(1990, reprinted with new afterword 2006), and M. Hamer,
Signs of Cleopatra: History, Politics, Representation
(1993). For a more specific study of Cleopatra in Roman culture see D. Kleiner,
Cleopatra and Rome
(2005).

Achillas

Actium, battle of

Actium, cape of

blockade of

Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius

Ahenobarbus, Lucius Domitius

Ahenobarbus, Cnaeus Domitius

Alesia, siege of

Alexander (Hasmonaean prince, son of Aristobulus)

Alexander Helios

Alexander IV

Alexander the Great

successors

tomb

Alexandra (mother-in-law of Herod)

Alexandreion, siege of

Alexandria

Library

Museum

Pharos lighthouse

size

Jewish community

the Gabinians as garrison

foundation

status

harbours

palace quarter

streets

wealth

population

food shortages

Caesar's arrival in

Cleopatra's return to

war in

burning of the Library

the Caesareum

Mark Antony and Cleopatra in

Octavian enters

recent excavations

Alexander the Great's Empire

break up of

Alexandrian War

Allienus, Aulus

Amatius

Ammonius

Annius (Marius' officer)

Antigonus (Hasmonaean prince)

Antioch

Antiochus III

Antiochus IV

Antonia major

Antonia minor

Antonius, Caius

Antonius, Iullus

Antonius, Lucius

Antonius, Marcus (Mark Antony's father)

Antonius, Marcus (Mark Antony's grandfather)

Vestal Virgin scandal

political career

death of

Antonius Hybrida, Caius

Antony, Mark

fame

coins

ignored by academics

portrayals of

military experience

appeal

birth

brothers

naming

family background

becomes head of family

family debts

stepfather

relationship to Julius Caesar

childhood

education

oratory skills

physique

ceremony to become a man

youth

descent from Hercules

dress

friendship with Curio

first marriage to Fadia

support for Clodius

visit to Greece

early military career

and the restoration of Ptolemy XII

first sees Cleopatra

leadership qualities

service in Caesar's Gallic Wars

election to quaestorship

first mentioned by Caesar

at the siege of Alesia

negotiations with Commius

election to tribunate

tribunate

defence of Caesar in the Senate

blamed for start of Civil War

and the Civil War

occupies Arretium

given propraetorian
imperium
as tribune

and the Macedonian campaign

second marriage to Antonia

mistress

at Dyrrachium

at Pharsalus

return to RomeBC

appointed Master of Horse

drinking

presides over the Senate

debts

and Dolabella

purchases Pompey's house

divorces Antonia

third marriage to Fulvia

breach with Caesar

return to favour

and Caesarion

offers Caesar kingship

halts Dolabella's election to consulship

and the assassination of Caesar

inability to succeed Caesar

and Caesar's funeral

dominance

granted Cisalpine Gaul

private army

and the rise of Octavian

Macedonian legions

Cisalpine Gaul campaign

Senate negotiates with

Octavian's defeat of

declared public enemy

and the formation of the Triumviarte

power

receives Cicero's head

Philippi campaign

tour of eastern provinces

in Cappadocia

summons Cleopatra to Tarsus

meeting with Cleopatra in Tarsus

and Cleopatra become lovers

extravagance

orders execution of Arsinoe

and Cleopatra in Alexandria

lack of strategy

and the Perusine War

return to Italy

siege of Brundisium

and the Treaty of Brundisium

fourth marriage to Octavia

children to Octavia

and Octavia

visit to Athens

children

expedition to Palmyra

sends Bassus to Syria

at Samosata

Brundisium conference with Octavian

prepares for Parthian campaign

Cleopatra visits

relationship with Cleopatra

strategic needs

naval forces

motivations for Parthian campaign

preparations for Parthian campaign

military performance

Median campaign

retreat from Parthia

effect of Parthian campaign on prestige

with Cleopatra at Leuce Come

Octavian's gifts

weakness of position

defeat of Artavasdes of Armenia

and the Donations of Alexandria

second consulship

grand wagers

failures

rivalry with Octavian

reputation

relationship with Octavia

transfers troops westwards

will

Octavian marginalizes

support for

preparations for war with Octavian

divorces Octavia

marriage to Cleopatra

and Geminius

military forces

strategy for war with Octavian

challenges Octavian to single combat

disposition of naval forces

continues to use title of triumvir

Octavian's campaign against

blockaded in Actium

desertions

breakout from Actium

battle of Actium

abandons legions

flight from Actium

failure at Actium

depression

attempts to rally forces

return to Alexandria after Actium

birthday celebrations

mood swings

negotiations with Octavian

gladiators loyal to

and Octavian's attack on Egypt

desire for heroic death

forces desert to the enemy

suicide

funeral

career

imperial ambitions

weakness

motivation

fascination of

Antyllus, Marcus Antonius

Aphrodisias

Aphrodite

Apollodorus of Sicily

Apollonia

Appian

Aradus

Archelaus (husband of Berenice IV)

Archibus

Areius

Ariminum

Aristobulus (Hasmonaean prince)

Aristobulus (brother-in-law of Herod)

Armenia

Arretium

Arrhidaeus

Arruntius, Lucius

Arsinoe (Cleopatra's sister)

Arsinoe II

Arsinoe III

Artavasdes of Armenia

Artavasdes of Media

Artaxes, River

Ascalon

Asia

Asia Minor

Aswan Dam

Athens

Atia (mother of Octavian)

Atticus

augurs

Augustan system, the

Baiae

Balkan campaigns

balsam bush, the

Berenice IV

Berytus

Bibulus, Marcus Calpurnius

Bithynia

bitumen

Bocchus of Mauretania

Bogud of Mauretania

Bononia

Britain, Caesar's invasion of

Brundisium

Brundisium, Treaty of

Brutus, Marcus Junius Caepio

surrender to Caesar

assassination of Caesar

speech after assassination

Mark Antony entertains

military support for

age at time of assassination

Caesar's funeral

leaves Rome

in Athens

takes command of army

subverts Macedonia

and Octavian

enemy of the state

campaigns in the east

Philippi campaign

Brutus Albinus, Decimus Junius

Caelius Rufus, Marcus

Caesar, Julius

fame

success

and Crassus' attempt to annex Egypt

forms the first triumvirate

mother

affairs

debts

and Clodius

divorce

Gallic wars

invasion of Britain

siege of Alesia

takes on Ptolemy XII's debt

Pontifex Maximus

and Mark Antony's election to the

tribunate

break with Pompey

end of Gallic command

charisma

prosecution threatened

and Curio

offers to lay down Gallic command

crosses the Rubicon

Spanish campaigns

consular support

Macedonian campaign

as dictator

elected to second consulship

at Dyrrachium

at Pharsalus

presented with Pompey's head

arrival in Egypt

need for funds

and Ptolemy XIII

Cleopatra's seduction of

Cleopatra's first entry into presence of

appearance

enforces joint rule

and the Alexandrian War

tour of Egypt

named dictator

army mutinies

African campaign

auctions Pompeians' property

third consulship

and Caesarion

children

triumphs

calendar reform

relationship with Cleopatra

rewards and power

reforms

offered kingship

Dacian and Parthian campaign plans

and Brutus

assassination

will

reactions to assassination of

lack of successor

funeral

and Octavian

possible identification with Osiris in Egypt

relationship with Mark Antony

Caesar, Lucius Julius

Caesarion

birth of

paternity

Cleopatra brings to Rome

appointed co-ruler

birth-temple

heritage

identification with Horus

and Octavian

strategic importance

status

titles

and the Donations of Alexandria

proclaimed son of Caesar

coming of age

escape plans for

vulnerable position

murder

Calenus, Quintus Fufius

Caligula, the Emperor

Callimachus

Canidius Crassus, Publius

Cape Naulochus, battle off

Cappadocia

Carrhae, battle of

Carthage

Cassius Dio

Cassius Longinus, Caius

surrender to Caesar

wife

assassination of Caesar

Mark Antony entertains

military support

age at time of assassination

Caesar's funeral

leaves Rome

leaves Italy

takes command of army

take over of Syria

and Octavian

military experience

declared enemy of the state

campaigns in the east

Philippi campaign

Cassius of Parma

casualties

Dyrrachium

the proscriptions

Philippi campaign

Parthian campaign

Actium

Catiline, Lucius Sergius

Cato, Marcus Porcius

cats, sacred to Egyptians

Catullus, Caius Valerius, the poet

Catulus, Quintus Lutatius

Cethegus, Publius Cornelius

Chaeronea

Charmion

Charonea

Cicero, Marcus Tullius

Philippics

on Marcus Antonius

on Ptolemy XII

criticism of ex-consuls

mocks dress fashions amongst youths

on Mark Antony's affairs

consulship

and the execution of Lentulus

exile

and the Sybilline Oracle

defence of Gabinius

defence of Rabirius

as augur

and Curio

contempt for Caesar's supporters

on Mark Antony

and the Civil War

unpopularity

blames Mark Antony for execution of Ahenobarbus

on Mark Antony and Cytheris

on Mark Antony's drinking

meeting with Caesar

on Caesar's consuls

despair during Caesar's dictatorship

visits Cleopatra in Rome

and assassination of Caesar

and ratification of Caesar's acts

Second Philippic

suspicion of Octavian

senate negotiations with Mark Antony

support for Octavian

lack of trust in Octavian

execution

false rumour of Cleopatra's death

Cilicia

Cinna, Caius Helvius

Cisalpine Gaul

Civil War

road to

Caesar crosses the Rubicon

Caesar takes Rome

early campaigns

aristocracy and

Mark Antony's role

Macedonian campaign

Cicero at first remains neutral

Pompey's arrival in Egypt and murder

Claudius, Emperor

Claudius Nero, Tiberius

Cleomenes

Cleopatra

fame

ignored by academics

intelligence

portrayals of

eroticism

charisma

power

Greek-ness of

literary sources

unimportance of

achievements

Augustan propaganda

appeal

decent from Ptolemy

birth

mother

father

mystique

siblings

mysterious background

childhood

education

Mark Antony first sees

becomes queen

character

appearance

coins

hair colour

participation in Buchis bull ceremony

Rome's attitude to accession

and the Gabinians

co-rule with Ptolemy XIII

exile

invasion of Egypt

begins affair with Caesar

first entry into Caesars' presence

return to Alexandria

and the Alexandrian War

confirmed as queen