Blowback (52 page)

1
.

On religious attitudes toward communism, see, for example,
Divini Redemptoris
(often referred to as “On Atheistic Communism”), encyclical letter of Pope Pius XI (1937), and Fulton J. Sheen,
Communism and the Conscience of the West
(1948). For more extended treatments of the complex development of the Catholic Church's perception of communism, see Hansjakob Stehle,
Eastern Politics of the Vatican 1917–1979
, tr. Sandra Smith (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1981), Wilfried Daim,
Der Vatikan und der Osten
(Vienna: Europa-Verlag), and John Cooney,
The American Pope: The Life and Times of Francis Cardinal Spellman
(New York: Times Books, 1984).

2
.

On “underground resistance movements,” see NSC 10/2, “Office of Special Projects,” June 18, 1948 (top secret), RG 273, NA, Washington, D.C. The designator “NSC 10/2” is used to identify National Security Council decision documents in series in this archival record group.

3
.

The media's role in the transformation of former Nazi collaborators into anti-Communist “freedom fighters” is discussed in Chapters Twelve, Fourteen, and Fifteen. For an example of this process, see Wallace Carroll, “It Takes a Russian to Beat a Russian,”
Life
(December 19, 1949), p. 80ff.

For archival documentation concerning the close relations between senior U.S. media figures and the U.S. intelligence community during the cold war, see JCS 1735/41, “Guidance on Psychological Warfare Matters,” February 20, 1950; also letter of Major General Charles Bolte to Brigadier General Robert A. McClure, July 7, 1949, discussing personnel for psychological warfare program and McClure's reply of July 20, 1949, with enclosure and subsequent correspondence, all secret, found in U.S. Army P&O Hot Files 091.412TS through 334WSEGTS, Box 10, Entry 154, RG 319, NA, declassified following author's request. General McClure, commander of all U.S. Army psychological warfare activities during World War II and much of the cold war, referred to
C. D. Jackson (of Time/Life) and William Paley (of CBS) as “my right and left hands [during World War II].… [They] know more of the policy and operational side of psychological warfare than any two individuals I know of.” See July 12, 1949, correspondence cited in the Hot Files series.

For a more accessible source on many of the personalities of cold war psychological warfare operations, see Sig Mickelson,
America's Other Voice: The Story of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty
(New York: Praeger, 1983).

4
.

Telegram traffic includes: Berlin to Washington dispatch marked “Personal for Kennan,” 862.00/9–2548, September 25, 1948 (top secret); Heidelberg to Washington dispatch marked “For Kennan,” 862.00/9–2748, September 27, 1948 (top secret); Washington to Heidelberg, 862.00/9–2848, September 28, 1948 (top secret); Heidelberg to Washington, 862.00/9–3048, September 30, 1948 (top secret), all of which are found in RG 59, NA, Washington, D.C.

5
.

Hunt, op. cit. The intelligence coordinating center referred to in the text is the Pentagon's Joint Intelligence Objectives Agency (JIOA), which is discussed in Chapter Three; for correspondence concerning suppression of records on Nazi past of scientists, see JIOA Deputy Director Walter Rozamus letter to Intelligence Division, U.S. Army General Staff, November 18, 1947. For Wev quote: JIOA Director Bosquet Wev to General S. J. Chamberlin, director of intelligence for War Department General Staff (G-2), July 2, 1947 (secret), both cited in Hunt, op. cit.

6
.

E. H. Cookridge (Edward Spiro),
Gehlen
(New York: Random House, 1971), pp. 121–25.

7
.

Author's interview with Victor Marchetti, June 7, 1984.

8
.

For discussion of cold war plans for use of Soviet bloc émigrés in guerrilla operations, including George Kennan's role, see Joint Strategic Plans Committee (JSPC), “Proposal for the Establishment of a Guerrilla Warfare School and a Guerrilla Warfare Corps” (JSPC 862/3), August 2, 1948 (top secret), P&O 352 TS (Section 1, Case 1), RG 319, NA; Kennan correspondence with General Alfred Gruenther, April 27, 1948 (secret) in P&O 091.714 TS (Section 1, Case 1), RG 319, NA; and JSPC “Joint Outline War Plans for Determination of Mobilization Requirements for War Beginning 1 July 1949” (JSPC 891/6), September 17, 1948 (top secret), with discussion of Vlasov and psychological warfare at Appendix “E,” p. 36, in P&O 370.1 TS (Case 7, Part IA, Sub No. 13), RG 319, NA.

On controversy over Waffen SS discussed in footnote, see Eugene Davidson,
The Trial of the Germans
(New York: Macmillan, 1966), pp. 15–17, 553; or particularly Kurt Tauber,
Beyond Eagle and Swastika
(Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1967), vol. I, p. 332ff.

9
.

The CIA's role in propaganda operations in the United States, including those employing former Nazi collaborators, is examined in detail in Chapters Fourteen, Fifteen, and Seventeen. For government records concerning payments to émigré leaders, see James R. Price,
Radio Free Europe: A Survey and Analysis
(Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service document no. JX 1710 USB, March 1972), pp. 9–10, and the following correspondence obtained through the Freedom of Information Act: Uldis Grava (American Latvian Association) to President Richard Nixon, January 4, 1972; Lucius D. Clay (Radio Free Europe) to Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, October 7, 1971;
Kissinger's reply to Clay, November 1, 1971, and attached correspondence, Department of State FOIA Case No. 8404249, September 25, 1986.

10
.

The spearhead of this publicity campaign was known as the Crusade for Freedom, although it also included a number of subordinate efforts detailed in Chapter Fifteen. On the CFF, see Mickelson, op. cit., pp. 41 and 53–58; Larry Collins, “The Free Europe Committee: American Weapon of the Cold War,” (1975) Carlton University doctoral thesis, Canadian Thesis on Microfilm Service, call no. TC 20090, p. 256ff.; and Free Europe Committee, Inc.,
President's Report
(New York: 1953).

11
.

For staffing of the Assembly of Captive European Nations (ACEN), see Assembly of Captive European Nations,
First Session: Organization, Resolutions, Reports, Debate
(New York: ACEN publication No. 5, 1955), p. 177ff. Note roles of Hasan Dosti (p. 180), Alfreds Berzins (p. 183), and Boleslavs Maikovskis (p. 186). For information concerning wartime role of these individuals, see Ralph Blumenthal, “Axis Supporters Enlisted by U.S. in Postwar Role: Albanians Said to Have Been Spies in the Balkans,”
New York Times
, June 20, 1982 (on Dosti); Central Registry of War Criminals and Security Suspects (CROWCASS),
Wanted List No. 14
, Berlin Command, Office of Military Government U.S. 11/46, p. 14 (on Berzins); U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Special Investigations,
Digest of Cases in Litigation
July 1, 1984 (Washington, D.C.: 1984), pp. 34–35 (on Maikovskis). Concerning certain Ukrainian fraternal groups, see Ralph Blumenthal, “CIA Accused of Aid to '30s Terrorist,”
New York Times
, February 6, 1986, and Joe Conason, “To Catch a Nazi,”
Village Voice
(February 11, 1986) both of which concern the case of noted Ukrainian émigré leader Mykola Lebed. On Daugavas Vanagi, see
Daugavas Vanagi Biletens
, no. 4 and no. 10 (1951), (at the New York Public Library, which identifies Berzins as a member of its central committee and editor of its journal; on Berzins's wartime career, see CROWCASS entry cited above. At least three other senior Vanagi leaders have also been accused of war crimes.

12
.

For Walter Lippmann quote, see Senator Charles Mathias, “Ethnic Groups and Foreign Policy,”
Foreign Affairs
(Summer 1981), p. 982.

1
.

Control Council Law No. 10 (Berlin, December 20, 1945) is published in Leon Friedman, ed.,
The Law of War: A Documentary History
(New York, Random House, 1972), together with considerable other documentation tracing the evolution of these concepts. See also, Morris Greenspan,
The Soldier's Guide to the Laws of War
(Washington, D.C.: Public Affairs Press, 1969).

2
.

There is an extensive literature on the Nazi war on the eastern front and on the Holocaust in German-occupied territories. For reliable studies used in the preparation of the present text, see Lucy Dawidowiscz,
The War Against the Jews
(New York: Bantam, 1976), pp. 537–41; Martin Gilbert,
The Holocaust
(New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1985), hereinafter cited as Gilbert,
Holocaust;
Nora Levin,
The Holocaust
(New York: Schocken, 1973), pp. 268-89; Gerald Reitlinger,
The House Built on Sand
(London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1960), pp. 249–56, and Gerald Reitlinger,
The SS: Alibi of a Nation
(Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1981), hereinafter cited as Reitlinger,
House
, and Reitlinger, SS; World Jewish Congress et al.,
The Black Book: The Nazi Crime Against the Jewish People
(New York: Nexus Press, 1981; reprint of the 1946 edition). Martin Gilbert's concise
Atlas of the Holocaust
(New York: Macmillan, 1982), is also excellent, and contains an extensive bibliography, hereinafter cited as Gilbert,
Atlas
. The best single documentation of Nazi crimes presently available in English is Raul Hilberg's extraordinary
The Destruction of the European Jews
(New York: Harper & Row, 1961), particularly pp. 177–256. Hilberg's book has recently been revised and expanded; the page number citations to the Hilberg book mentioned in the present text, however, are to the original edition.

3
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For comment on “humane” methods, see Hilberg, op. cit., p. 210.

4
.

The seminal work on political warfare on the eastern front—though perhaps the least available—is Friedrich Buchardt's top secret manuscript “Die Be-handlung des russichen Problems wahrend der Zeit des national-sozialistischen Regimes in Deutschland” (1946?), originally prepared for British intelligence and later made available to American agencies as well. Based also on author's interview with Mrs. Buchardt, May 17, 1984. Dallin,
German Rule
, devotes almost 200 pages to his study of “political warfare” as utilized on the eastern front; see pp. 497–505 and 660–78 for summaries. Reitlinger,
House
, pp. 248–56, offers valuable insights into the relationship between political warfare and the extermination program; and Matthew Cooper,
The Nazi War Against the Soviet Partisans 1941–1944
(New York: Stein & Day, 1979), presents a useful summary of the
Osttruppen
programs on pp. 109–23.

5
.

On Pfleiderer, see
Proceedings of the International Tribunal
(at Nuremberg), vol. VIII, pp. 248–249; by Reitlinger, see Reitlinger,
House
, pp. 250 and 256.

6
.

For SS role of Six and Augsburg, see captured SS Dossiers No. 107480 (Six) and No. 307925 (Augsburg) in the Berlin Document Center.

On Hilger: Alfred Meyer interview, December 30, 1983. See also citations to wartime documentation on Hilger in Chapter Nine.

On Köstring: “Final Interrogation Report: Koestring, Gen D Kav, CG of Volunteer Units,” Seventh U.S. Seventh Army Interrogation Center, SAIC/ FIR/42, September 11, 1945 (confidential), Box 721 A, Entry 179, Enemy POW Interrogation file (MIS-Y) 1943–1945, AC of 5, G-2 Intelligence Division, RG 165, NA, Washington, D.C.

On Herwarth: Hans Heinrich Herwarth von Bittenfeld,
Zwischen Hitler
und Stalin
(Frankfurt: Verlag Ullstein, 1982), and Charles Thayer,
Hands Across the Caviar
(Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1952), pp. 183–200, hereinafter cited as Thayer,
Hands
.

On Gehlen: Cookridge, op. cit., or citations in Chapter Four.

On Strik-Strikfelt: Wilfried Strik-Strikfelt,
Gegen Stalin und Hitler: General Wlassow und die russiche Freiheitsbewegung
(Mainz: Hase & Koehler Verlag, 1970); in English,
Against Stalin and Hitler
, tr. David Footman (New York: John Day Co., 1973).

7
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Werth, op. cit., p. 646.

For account of Vlasov discussed in footnote, see Strik-Strikfelt, op. cit., with quoted portion at pp. 229–30 in the English-language edition; quote concerning execution of Vlasov is on p. 245. For Thorwald quote in footnote, see Jiirgen Thorwald (Heinz Bongartz),
Flight in the Winter
(New York: Pantheon, 1951), p. 293. See also Jürgen Thorwald,
The Illusion: Soviet Soldiers in Hitler's Armies
(New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1974), p. 315ff., hereinafter cited as Thorwald,
Illusion
.