Holocaust: The Nazi Persecution and Murder of the Jews (100 page)

BOOK: Holocaust: The Nazi Persecution and Murder of the Jews
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Minderheitsgruppe in der Weimarer Republik’, in Walter Grab and Julius H. Schoeps,

eds, Juden in der Weimarer Republik. Skizzen und Portraits (Stuttgart, 1986), 330–46; Paul Mendes-Flohr, ‘Jewish Cultural Life under National Socialism’, in Meyer, ed., German-Jewish History, iv. 125–53, esp. 149 ff.

Notes to pages 43–46

451

73. Avraham Barkai, ‘The Organized Jewish Community’, in Meyer, ed., German-Jewish

History in Modern Times, iv. 72–101, esp. 90 ff. on the Zionists.

74. Herbert A. Strauß, ‘Jewish Emigration from Germany: Nazi Policies and Jewish

Response’, LBIY 25 (1980), 326. The exact number of émigrés cannot be established.

Differing estimates can be found in Salomon Adler-Rudel, Jüdische Selbsthilfe unter

dem Nazi Regime 1933–1939. Im Spiegel der Berichte der Reichsvertretung der Juden in

Deutschland (Tübingen, 1974), 216; Documents of the Reich Association, 11 and 459;

and in Susanne Heim, ‘ “Deutschland muss ein Land ohne Zukunft sein”. Die

Zwangsemigration der Juden 1933 bis 1938’, in Eberhard Jungfer et al., Arbeitsmigra-

tion und Flucht. Vertreibung und Arbeitskräfteregulierung im Zwischenkriegseuropa.

Beiträge zur nationalsozialistischen Gesundheits- und Sozialpolitik, vol. xi (Berlin,

1993).

75. Francis Nicosia, The Third Reich and the Palestine Question (Austin, 1985), 41 ff.;

Werner Feilchenfeld, Wolf Michaelis, and Ludwig Pinner, Haavara-Transfer nach

Palästina und Einwanderung deutscher Juden 1933–1939 (Tübingen, 1972).

76. The Centralverein had to replace the word ‘state citizens’ in its name with the name

‘nationals’. For the Centralverein in the years 1933–5 see Barkai, ‘Wehr Dich’, 300 ff.

77. Adler-Rudel, Selbsthilfe, 9 ff.; Günter Plum, ‘Deutsche Juden oder Juden in Deutsch-

land’ in Benz, ed., Juden in Deutschland, 35–74, esp. 49 ff.

78. Adler-Rudel, Selbsthilfe, 10–11. On the foundation of the National Delegation, see Esriel Hildesheimer, Jüdische Selbstverwaltung unter dem NS-Regime. Der Existenzkampf der

Reichsvertretung und Reichsvereinigung der Juden in Deutschland (Tübingen, 1994), 11–12.

On the whole issue, see also Clemens Vollnhals, ‘Selbsthilfe bis 1938’, in Benz, ed., Juden in Deutschland, 314–412.

79. Vollnhals, ‘Selbsthilfe’, 363 ff.

80. Adler-Rudel, Selbsthilfe, 124 ff.

81. Ibid. 347 ff.

82. Ibid. 150 ff.

83. According to Joseph Walk, Jüdische Schule und Erziehung im Dritten Reich (Frankfurt

a. M., 1991), 80 ff. and 105 ff., in 1933 less than 10,000 Jewish schoolchildren attended the 117 public and private Jewish primary and secondary schools, and some 3,500

attended the 10 private institutions of higher education. On the Jewish school system

see Ruth Röcher, Die jüdische Schule im nationalsozialistischen Deutschland 1938–1942

(Frankfurt a. M., 1992); Adler-Rudel, Selbsthilfe, 19 ff. and Vollnhals, ‘Selbsthilfe’,

330 ff.

84. Adler-Rudel, Selbsthilfe, 25–6. According to the figures compiled here and taken from the reports of the National Delegation, which may be somewhat exaggerated, in 1935

some 16,000 of the 30,000 Jewish primary and secondary school pupils and about 4,000

of the 13,800 pupils in institutions of higher education attended Jewish schools.

85. Volker Dahm, ‘Kulturelles und geistiges Leben’, in Benz, ed., Juden in Deutschland. See also Elke Geisel and Henry M. Broder, Premiere und Pogrom. Der jüdische Kulturbund

1933–1941. Texte und Bilder (Berlin, 1992).

86. Hajo Bernett, Der jüdische Sport im nationalsozialistischen Deutschland (Schorndorf,

1978). The most important sports associations that existed before 1933 were the Mak-

kabi movement and the Sportbund Schild des Reichbundes jüdischer Frontsoldaten (the

452

Notes to pages 46–51

Sporting Association Shield of the National Association of Jewish Front-Line Sol-

diers). First of all, in 1933, sports arenas and clubs were closed to Jewish associations across the board. In the run-up to the Olympic Games these restrictions were reversed

in 1934, but from 1937 they were stepped up again (ibid. 85 ff.).

87. RGBl, 1933, I, p. 529.

88. Law for the Standardization of the Health Service, 3 July 1934: RGBl, 1933, I, p. 531. On its activity, see Gisela Bock, Zwangssterilisation im Nationalsozialismus. Studien zur

Rassenpolitik und Frauenpolitik (Opladen, 1986), 187 ff.

89. Ibid. 195 ff.

90. Ibid. 230 ff.; Christian Ganssmüller, Die Erbgesundheitspolitik des Dritten Reiches.

Planung, Durchführung, und Durchsetzung (Cologne, 1987), 45.

91. Bock, Zwangssterilisation, 301 ff.

92. Second Implementing Decree of the Reich Minister of Finance on the Granting of

Loans on Marriage of 26 July 1933, RGBl, 1933, I, p. 540.

93. Ganssmüller, Erbgesundheitspolitik, 134–5.

94. Marriage Health Law, RGBl, 1935, I, p. 773.

95. RGBl, 1933, I, p. 995. Cf. Bock, Zwangssterilisation, 95 ff. In addition there was an unknown number of ‘voluntary’ castrations.

96. Bock, Zwangssterilisation, 97 ff.; Ganssmüller, Erbgesundheitspolitik, 116 ff.

97. RGBl, 1935, I, p. 773.

98. RGBl, 1935, I, p. 1246.

99. Leaflet from the Racial Politics Office of the Danube Gau, reprinted in Klaus Scherer,

‘Asozial’ im Dritten Reich. Die vergessenen Verfolgten (Münster, 1990), 51.

100. Bock, Zwangssterilisation, 365–6.

101. Wolfgang Ayaß, ‘Asoziale’ im Nationalsozialismus (Stuttgart, 1995), 20 ff.

102. Ibid. 57 ff.

103. Ibid. 123 ff.

104. Michael Zimmermann, Rassenutopie und Genozid. Die nationalsozialistische ‘Lösung

der Zigeunerfrage’ (Hamburg, 1996), 81 ff.; see also Guenter Lewy, The Nazi Persecu-

tion of the Gypsies (New York, 2001), 15 ff.

105. First Implementation Decree of the Law for the Protection of German Blood and

German Honour 14 November 1935, RGBl, 1935, I, pp. 1134–6; Ministerialblatt für die

Innere Verwaltung (1935), p. 49.

106. Bock, Zwangssterilisaation, 90 ff.

107. Cf. ibid. 104 ff. The author is right to describe this as ‘the state’s conquest of the private sphere’.

108. Ibid. 85.

109. Burkhard Jellonek, Homosexuelle unter dem Hakenkreuz. Die Verfolgung von Homo-

sexuellen im Dritten Reich (Paderborn, 1990), 80 ff.

110. RGBl, 1935, I, pp. 839 ff., Law for Amendments to the Penal Code of 28 June 1935.

111. Bock, Zwangssterilisation, 353.

112. For details, see above, p. 49.

113. Reiner Pommerin, ‘Sterilisierung der Rheinlandbastarde’. Das Schicksal einer farbigen deutschen Minderheit, 1918–1937 (Düsseldorf, 1970), 44 ff.

114. Ibid. 71 ff.

Notes to pages 52–55

453

2.

Segregation and Comprehensive Discrimination, 1935–1937

1. Literature on the second wave of Jewish persecution and its reception amongst the

populace includes: Kurt Pätzold, Faschismus, Rassenwahn, Judenverfolgung. Eine

Studie zur politischen Strategie und Taktik des faschistischen deutschen Imperialismus

(1933–1935) (Berlin, 1975), 197 ff.; Kershaw, Opinion, 232 ff.; Kershaw, ‘The Persecution of the Jews and German Popular Opinion in the Third Reich’, LBIY 26 (1981), 261–89

(264 ff.); Hans Mommsen and Hans Obst, ‘Die Reaktion der deutschen Bevölkerung

auf die Verfolgung der Juden 1933–1943’, in Hans Mommsen and Susanne Willems,

eds, Herrschaftsalltag im Dritten Reich. Studien und Texte (Düsseldorf, 1988), 377 ff.;

Werner T. Angress, ‘Die “Judenfrage” im Spiegel amtlicher Berichte 1935’, in Ursula

Büttner, ed., Das Unrechtsregime, vol. ii: Verfolgung, Exil, Belasteter Neubeginn

(Hamburg, 1986), ii. 19–38; David Bankier, Die öffentliche Meinung im NS-Staat.

Die ‘Endlösung’ und die Deutschen. Eine Berichtigung (Berlin, 1995), 56 ff. and 98 ff.

The following summary is based on a more detailed exposition in Peter Longerich,

Politik der Vernichtung (Munich, 1998), 65 ff., which is itself based on a detailed

examination of reports by the Gestapo and the Regierungsbezirk presidents, pub-

lished and unpublished (Geheime Staatsarchiv Dahlem (GStaA), Rep 90 P and

Bundesarchiv Berlin (BAB), R 18, R 58 and 15.01), reporting by the Social Democratic

Party in exile (Sopade), Centralverein documents and the literature on regional

history. Much of this material has now been published in Die Juden in den geheimen

Stimmungsberichten 1933–1945 with CD-ROM, ed. Otto Dov Kulka and Eberhard

Jaeckel (Düsseldorf, 2004).

2. The Nazis used the derogatory term ‘Pfaffen’.

3. For details see Longerich, Politik, 78 ff. There are also many examples in the submission of the Centralverein to the RWM of 15 Feb. 1935 (OS, 721–1–2300).

4. See Uwe Adam, Die Judenpolitik im Dritten Reich (Düsseldorf, 1972), 118. The Gestapo

ban took effect on 12 Feb. 1935: BAB, R 58/276.

5. Military Law (Wehrgesetz) of 21 May 1935. RGBl, 1935, pp. 609 ff.

6. Gestapo Decree, probably of 28 Jan. 1935, quoted in Verfügung Landrat Eschwege,

14 Mar. 1936, published in Thomas Klein, ed., Der Regierungsbezirk Kassel 1933–1936.

Die Berichte der Regierungspräsidenten und der Landräte (Darmstadt and Marburg,

1985), i. 712.

7. Details in Longerich, Politik, 82 ff. Those who opposed a continuation of the violence included the Führer’s Deputy in an order of 11 Apr. 1935 in Institut für Zeitgeschichte

(IfZ) VAB, A 63/35 and the Reich Minister for Economic Affairs, Schacht in his

memorandum on ‘The Imponderables of Export’ of 3 May 1935 in Akten zur deutschen

auswärtigen Politik (ADAP), Series C, vol. iv. 120 ff.

8. See Norbert T. Wiggershaus, Der deutsch-englische Flottenvertrag vom 18. Juni 1935

(Bonn, 1972). According to his own account, in the course of the negotiations between

Britain and Germany the leader of the British delegation, Lord Lothian, had indicated

to Ribbentrop that an improvement in the treatment of Jews in Germany was

a prerequisite for a successful outcome. By doing so, Lothian was responding to a

request made by Chaim Weitzmann, the President of the World Zionist Organization.

454

Notes to pages 55–58

See the Weizmann–Lothian correspondence in Deutsches Judentum unter dem Natio-

nalsozialismus. Dokumente zur Geschichte der Reichsvertretung der deutschen Juden

1933–1939, ed. Otto Dov Kulka (Tübingen, 1997), i. 214 ff.

9. Details in Longerich, Politik, 83 ff.

10. There is detailed material on this point in BAB, 15.01, 27079/35. See also Pätzold,

Faschismus, 216 ff., including material on the aftermath.

11. National Archives Washington DC (NA), T 175 R 180, Himmler’s order of 7 June 1935;

IfZ, Decree of the Führer’s Deputy V 123/35 or 14 June 1935; Westdeutscher Beobachter,

29 May 1935; Frankfurter Zeitung (FZ), 3 June 1935.

12. Details in Longerich, Politik, 85 ff.

13. This was the headline in Der Angriff for 16 July 1935.

14. Cf. Longerich, Politik, 88 ff.

15. Ibid. 89 ff.

16. Edition 25 (1935). Der Stürmer is referring here to the colours of socialists, Catholics, the Weimar Republic, and Imperial Germany respectively.

17. This is evident from the relevant ‘reports on the popular mood’, above all those

prepared by the Gestapo and the Sopade. See Deutschland-Berichte der Sozialdemokra-

tischen Partei Deutschlands (Sopade) 1934–1940 (Frankfurt a. M., 1980) (Sopade, August

1935, A 42-A46, and Longerich, Politik, 90 ff.).

18. IfZ, circular from the Führer’s Deputy, R 164/35 of 9 Aug. 1935.

19. Verhandlungen des Reichstages, vol. 440, Appendices, Document 1741. In an earlier

speech Hitler had already demanded the death penalty for ‘every Jew caught with a

blond woman’. See Hitler, Sämtliche Aufzeichnungen 1905–1924, ed. Eberhard Jäckel

(Stuttgart, 1980), no. 355, 2 Feb. 1922.

20. Cornelia Essner, Die ‘Nürnberger Gesetze’ oder die Verwaltung des Rassenwahns 1933–

1945 (Paderborn, 2002), 77 ff., which has the most detailed survey of the genesis of the

Nuremberg Laws.

21. 37th meeting of the Criminal Law Commission of 5 June 1934, published in Jürgen

Regge and Werner Schubert, eds, Protokolle der Strafrechtskommission des Reichsjus-

tizministeriums (Berlin and New York, 1988), part II, vol. ii, 223 ff. Further details in Essner, ‘Nürnberger Gesetze’, 96 ff.

22. Military Law of 21 May 1935, RGBl, 1935, I, pp. 609 ff.

23. Lothar Gruchmann, Justiz im Dritten Reich. Anpassung und Unterwerfung in der Ära

Gürtner 1933–1940 (Munich, 1980), 871–2.

24. Ministerialblatt für die innere Verwaltung (MbliV), 1935, p. 980.

25. Essner, ‘Nürnberger Gesetze’, 106 ff.

26. VB, 7 Aug. 1935; Goebbels’s speech is reproduced in the issue for 5 Aug. 1935.

27. See below, p. 59.

28. According to Arthur Gütt (from the Reich Ministry of the Interior) at a meeting on

25 Sept. 1935 (R 2/12042, cited in Gisela Bock, Zwangssterilisation im Nationalsozialis-

mus. Studien zur Rassenpolitik und Frauenpolitik (Opladen, 1986), p. 101).

29. English trans. in J. Noakes and G. Pridham, Nazism 1919–1945 (Exeter, 1983), i. 14.

30. See above, p. 40.

31. Berliner Illustrierte Nachtausgabe, 27 Apr. 1935.

32. OS, 500-3-316, Situation Report for the first Half-Year 1935, 17 Aug. 1935.

Notes to pages 58–60

455

33. NG 4067, International Military Tribunal (IMT) (Nuremberg) xiii. 698. Unusually this

speech was reproduced in the daily press and distributed by the Reichsbank as a special

pamphlet. The draft for the speech, which is in the Bank’s archives, is more detailed and more critical in its approach to the ‘individual operations’ than the printed version

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