Inside of a Dog: What Dogs See, Smell, and Know (43 page)

theory of mind and, 192

use of dogs to read behavior, 162 autobiographies, pet, 119, 225–27

baboons
animal cognition research on, 4
eyebrows raised in display, 16
baby talk, 95–96
ball dogs, 126–32, 154, 287
barks
as communication, 98, 105–8, 152, 153, 154, 171
contagious, 108
decibels of, 105
frequencies of, 105–6, 107–8
types of, 98–99, 100, 106–8
see also
attention-getter; sounds made
basenji, 50
basset hound, 77–78
bathing dogs, 85–86, 292
baths, 19, 86
bats
echolocation of, 91, 241–43
flehmen, 74
beagle, 49, 71, 72
bears, birth of, 64–65
beastomorphism, 60
beds
dog, 25–26, 86
human, 25–26
bees, 91, 215
begging
in dogs, 155–56
experimental trials using, 155–57

behavioral science

animal cognition research in, 4–5, 13–14, 27–28, 102n operant conditioning and, 10–11, 189–90

Bekoff, Marc, 237–38 Belgian Tervuren, 193–95

belly, exposing, 110
Belyaev, Dmitry, 35–37
big-brain hypothesis, 8–9, 44
bike-chasing, 170–71
biophilia hypothesis (Wilson), 265n
bird dogs, 43, 49, 54
biting
games based on, 42
meanings of, 62–63
muzzle biting, 18–19

bitter taste, 30 bladders, 60–61, 83, 115, 116

blind persons, dog companions for, 43, 134–35, 152, 162, 274
bloodhound, olfaction in tracking, 77–78
blue tit, milk-bottle raiding of, 185
see also
imitation
body language, 91, 108–14, 118
bonding
components of, 266–79
cross-species, 259–82
dog-human, 259–82
of domesticated silver foxes, 37
greeting ritual and, 29, 30–31, 263–64, 271–73
impact of bond effect, 279–82
mutual responsiveness in, 263–66, 274–79
pair bond, 260–61
proximate/ultimate explanations for, 265–66
temporal patterns and, 274–79
touch and, 266–71, 293
bonobos, 4–5, 145n
border collie, 48, 96–97, 98
boredom, 216–17, 288–89
see also
time, experience of
Bouvier des Flandres, 50
boxer, 51
brain
anatomy of olfaction and, 71–75
anatomy of vision and, 125, 126–32

big-brain hypothesis, 8–9, 44

breathing sounds, 103
breeds, dog, 47–55
American Kennel Club, 49, 50
ancient, 48–49
categories of, 49–52
characteristic traits of, 40, 42n, 47–52, 112, 114, 127–28, 287
closed gene pool of, 50–52
development of, 40, 48–49
differences in development, 47–48
"dog fancy" shows, 49n
genomes of, 50–52
modern, 49–50
mutts versus, 294
physical range, 43–44
purebred, 49–50, 51, 71
selective breeding, 40
threshold differences between, 52–55
briard, 50
bulldog, 114
bull terrier, 5
bumblebees, use of time, 215
bumps, 152
butyric acid, 20–21, 79

caching behavior, 210n, 226, 227, 227n
Cairn terrier, 50
camouflage, 123
cancer, detection of, 81–82
see also
olfaction
Canidae
family, 34, 38, 82–84
cats
attention in, 145
fetch and, 277
flehmen, 74
Cavalier King Charles spaniel, 114
character-reading, 168–70
chasing behaviors, 169–71

chatter, 103
chickadees, 185
see also
imitation
chickens, spatial preferences of, 16–17
Chihuahua, 1–2, 124, 205–6
children
attention-getting in, 152, 153, 234
autism and, 140, 162, 192
developmental stages, 43, 141–44, 146, 162–63
epileptic seizure prediction in, 82n
fear of strange dogs and, 79–80
gaze bias of, 148n
guilt and, 230, 234
hearing abilities of, 93n
overimitation by, 188, 188n
rescue dogs and, 237–39
theory of mind, 192–93, 218, 234–35
see also
infants, human

chimpanzees

animal cognition research on, 4–5, 102n, 145, 147, 148, 150–51, 157, 193
begging experiments with, 156
big-brain hypothesis and, 8–9
contagious yawns and, 280
human evolution and, 61–62, 62n
"mark" test of self-awareness, 218–19, 220
smile of, 16
chow chow, 3, 50
cilia, smell and, 71, 74
circadian rhythms, 88, 212–15, 227–28
see also
time, experience of
cities and city design
grid-based, 86–87
human visual perception and, 136–37
life of urban dogs, 163, 283–85
in odor control, 86–87
paving, 86–87
personal space and, 17
sounds and, 251–52

street filth and, 56, 295

Clever Hans, 163–66
clicker training, 256n
see also
training
cloned dogs, 52
clothing
anthropomorphism and, 17–19, 29, 56
dog height and, 244–45
odors on, 71, 75–76, 77, 78, 85, 244
raincoats for dogs, 17–19

coats for dogs, 17–19

cognition.
see
animal cognition; physical cognition; social cognition
collie, 48, 96–97, 98
color vision, 128–29, 250, 252
see also
vision

commands, 60, 96, 157–58, 171–72, 231, 231n

learning to obey, 182–83, 189–90, 204n, 285–86

communication, 89–119
asking dogs in, 26–28
barks as, 98, 105–8, 152–54, 171
of bats, 91, 241–43
body language in, 91, 108–14, 118
commands in.
see
commands
of dogs, 1–2, 5–6, 89–91, 108–18.
see also
sounds made; urine
dog tells, 292–93
of elephants, 91
eye contact in, 45–47
of fireflies, 91–92
of frogs, 92
human vocalizations, 90–91
intentional, 115–18
keyboard use in, 145n
of monkeys, 91, 94
naming, 96–97, 98, 295–97
pitch of sounds made, 93–96, 98–108
pointing in, 49, 143, 150–52, 287

posture in, 80–81, 89–90, 108, 109–10, 111, 153 prosody in, 93–94, 95, 251

shaking in, 113–14
showing, 154
of socialized wolves, 63–64
urine as, 22, 82–84, 114–18
see also
language
comparative psychology, 206–7
concealing behavior, 234–35
confirmation bias, 169n
conversational maxims, 97–98
coprophagia (feces eating), 73
cortisol, 172–73, 279–80
see also
hormones
countermarking, 117
counting ability, 163–66, 210
coursing dogs, 48
courting behavior, 83–84, 277–78
cows, slaughterhouse behavior of, 136, 251n
coyotes, 34
cries, 101
critical/sensitive period, 42–43, 222n, 262
cropping ears, 92
cross-species bond, 259–82
crouching, 110–11
cuteness, 264

dachshund, 40, 48, 53n
darting eyes, 148
Darwin, Charles, 29, 102n, 109
daydreaming, 88

deaf persons, dog companions for, 162, 240 death, 235–37

deception, 80, 169, 192–93, 201, 234–35
demonstration, 186–90
depression
in dogs, 14, 16, 26, 27, 112
in rats, 27–28
Derrida, Jacques, 281–82
dholes, 34
diabetes, detection of, 81

see also
olfaction

dingoes, 34
disease
bonding in prevention of, 279–80
olfaction in detection of, 81–82
DNA.
see
genes
Doberman, 51, 53n, 229–30
docked tails, 114
"dog fancy" shows, 49n
dog groomers, 85–86, 292
dog heroes.
see
emergencies
dog whistle, 93
dog years, 222n
dolphins
brain size of, 9n
self-awareness of, 219
smile of, 16
domestication, 33–65
archeological evidence of, 39–40
artificial selection in, 6, 35–37
definition of, 33–34
DNA evidence of, 39–40
dog-human bond and, 260
food preferences and, 33, 34
process of, 35–37, 38–47, 60–61, 64–65
of silver foxes, 35–37
theory of, 38–47
wolves and, 38–47, 55–61

dominance

body language showing, 110–11, 112, 114
in electric shock research, 19n
eye contact in, 147
hormones and, 172
licking and, 30–31
in marking behavior, 117
sounds made and, 102
in training dogs, 57–61
in wolves versus dogs, 18–19, 40, 147, 148

dopamine, 261
dreaming, 88, 124, 213, 213n
ducks
chasing behavior of, 141
greeting behavior of, 272

ears, 92–98, 109–10, 113

see also
audition; sounds made eating tone, 24
eavesdropping, with video camera, 291–92
echolocation, 91, 241–43
Egypt, dog breeds in ancient, 48–49
electric shock research, 19n
elephants
brain size of, 9n
communication of, 91
flehmen, 74
periscope sniff, 69
roses and, 22
self-awareness of, 219

Elizabethan collar, 86
emergencies
knowledge of, 240–41
rescue dogs, 79, 166, 237–39
stories of dog heroes, 237–39
test of behavior during, 239–41
encephalization quotient, 9n
endorphins, 279
English cocker spaniel, 50
epileptic seizure, prediction of, 82n
see also
olfaction
exaggerated retreat, 203
eyebrows, raised as display, 16, 124
eye contact
aggression and, 147, 148–49
in attending, 143–44
avoiding, 46
dog tells, 292–93
dog vision and, 133–34

as foundation for social cognition, 45–47

gaze avoidance, 45–46, 110–11, 143, 144, 148–49, 229, 232, 292–93
gaze following, 149–52, 154
lack of, in autism, 140, 192
mutual gaze, 46–47, 139, 146–49, 161, 292–93
showing, 154
staring, 15, 45–46, 110, 292–93
use of gaze, 46
eyes.
see also
eye contact; vision
darting, 148
of dogs versus wolves, 42

facial expressions, 110 eyebrows raised as display, 16, 124

infant imitation of, 142–43, 173, 277
see also
smile

facial recognition, 142–43

false belief task, 192–93, 201
Far Side
(Larson), 95

fear
anal sacs and, 84–85
communication of, 99, 112
detection of, 79–81.
see also
olfaction
in domestication of wolves, 37, 39
isolation barks and, 107
feces, 24, 73, 84–85, 295
feet
dog, 85
human, 71, 75–76, 78, 244
feral dogs, 59, 63, 83–84, 117–18
fetch, 277–78, 287
see also
play, human-dog

Finnegan, 266–67, 301

fireflies, communication of, 91–92
flehmen, 74
flicker-fusion rate, 130–32
see also
vision

flirting, timing in, 277–78

fluorescent lights, 131
foveae, 126–27
Fox, Michael, 269
foxes
in
Canidae
family, 34.
see also Canidae
family
domestication experiments, 35–37
vocalizations of, 90
free-ranging dogs, 59, 63, 83–84, 117–18
French bulldog, 114
friendly behavior, 171–72
frogs, communication of, 92
Fromm, Erich, 216
functional tone, 24–26
fur trade, domestication of silver foxes, 35–37

gaits, 290–91
galloping, 290
Gallup, Gordon, 217–20
gangs, dog-human, 57–61
gaze.
see
eye contact
generalizations, 8–9, 221–22
genes
divergence of dogs, 38–47
functioning of, 36–37
genetic mutations, 51
genome mapping, 36–37, 51, 52n
interaction with environment, 51–55
mitochondrial DNA, 39–40
of tamed foxes, 36–37
genitals, olfaction and, 75, 76, 87
German shepherd, 50, 53n, 104
golden retriever, 112
Goodall, Jane, 102n, 296
Grandin, Temple, 136, 251n
Great Dane, 50
greeting, 271–73

attachment behavior and, 43, 271–72 licking in, 29, 30–31, 65, 247, 272–73

ritual as part of bond, 29, 30–31, 263–64, 271–73
sniff in, 75, 76, 84–85, 86, 87–88
tail in, 3, 31, 256–57
see also
kisses, dog
greyhound, 48
Grice, Paul, 97–98
grin.
see
smile
growl, 62, 100, 102, 221–22.
see also
sounds made
grunt, 101–2
guard dogs, 252
guilt, 228–35
associations and, 232–33
concealing behavior, 234–35
feeling of, 228–35
gaze avoidance and, 149, 229, 232
guilty look, 149, 228–30, 232, 233
lack of, 234
polygraph machines, 80, 169
test of, 230–33

habits, knowledge of, 166–72, 251–52
habituation, to odors, 70–71
hackles, 110, 113
half-bounding, 290–91
handedness/pawedness, 288
happiness, 26
licking and, 30–31
smiling and, 16, 145
wagging tail and, 112–13
Harlow, Harry, 268–69
harriers, 49
head bow, 201
head size, 8–9, 44, 124
hearing.
see
audition; sounds made

heeling, 287–88

height, of dogs, 23, 40, 110n, 112, 169–71, 243–45
herding behavior, 49, 53, 54, 71, 262, 287
hierarchy

lack of, in domestic dogs, 57–61
of the senses, 133–34
in wolves, 40, 58–59
hippopotamus marking, 84
Homo sapiens
dog recognition of owner, 25–26, 29–31
in domestication process, 38–47
early settlements of, 38–39
evolution of, 40–41, 61–62
hormones
affected by petting dog, 261
contagion of in dogs, 80, 280
cortisol, 172–73, 279–80
detection by dogs, 80, 172–73, 280
detection by sharks, 77
endorphins, 279
oxytocin, 261, 279
pheromones and, 73–75, 79–81, 83
prolactin, 279
testosterone, 172
threshold levels of, 53
vasopressin, 261

horse

counting behavior of "Clever Hans,"163–66 pressure-release as reinforcement, 249n

hounds, 50
howl, 100, 101, 103
hunting
chasing behaviors and, 169–71
dogs bred for, 43, 49, 53–54
style of dogs, 43, 57, 57n, 59
style of wolves, 34, 38–40, 43, 57n, 58
in training dogs, 57–61
husky, 42n, 48, 50, 114, 135
hyenas, 34n
hypothalamus, 212–13

imitation
in animal cognition research, 183–90
blue tit and chickadee behavior, 185
demonstration and, 186–90
"do as I do" task, 142–43, 186–90
of facial expressions, 142–43, 173, 277
learning through, 183–86
mirroring, 152–53
overimitation by children, 188, 188n
role in bonding process, 274–79
stimulus enhancement versus, 184–90
true imitation, 189–90
India, free-ranging dogs in, 83–84, 117–18
individuality
genetic differences and, 51–55
of humans versus dogs, 8–9
infants, human
attachment in, 43
bonding and, 267–69, 277
cuteness of, 264
developmental stages, 43, 141–44, 146
facial recognition by, 142–43
gaze following in, 150
imitation of smile, 143, 173, 277
motherese and, 95–96
object permanence and, 178–79
overimitation by, 188, 188n
visual perception in, 142
see also
children
instincts, 236–37
intelligence, 175–207
brain size and, 8–9, 44
counting ability, 163–66, 210
dog intelligence tests, 175–81
learning from others, 176, 181–83
linguistic ability in, 94–95, 96–97
problem solving, 44–45, 175–81
tool use and, 44–45, 177