Iron Curtain (86 page)

6.
Interview with Zsófia Tevan, Budapest, June 3, 2009.

7.
SNL, Historic Interview Collection: Jenő Széll, Történeti Interjúk Tára, and Országos Széchenyi Könyvtár, interview conducted by András Hegedüs, Gábor Hanák, Gyula Kozák, and Ilona Szabóné Dér, on August 3, 1985.

8.
Interview with Alexander Jackowski, Warsaw, May 15, 2007.

9.
Kennan,
Memoirs
, p. 74.

10.
Sándor Márai,
Memoir of Hungary:
1944–1948
, trans. Albert Tezla (Budapest and New York, 2000), pp. 44–46.

11.
Lukacs,
1945
, p. 75.

12.
Antony Beevor and Luba Vinogradova, eds.,
A Writer at War: Vasily Grossman with the Red Army,
1941
–
1945
(London, 2005), pp. 341–42.

13.
TsAMO RF, 372/6570/78, pp. 30–32 (thanks to Antony Beevor).

14.
Catherine Merridale,
Ivan’s War
(New York, 2006), p. 389.

15.
Alexander Nakhimovsky and Alice Nakhimovsky,
Witness to History: The Photographs of Yevgeny Khaldei
(New York, 1997). 

16.
Krisztián Ungváry,
The Siege of Budapest:
100
Days in World War
II
(London, 2002
)
, p. 360.

17.
My husband played this game as a child in 1960s Poland.

18.
Cztery Pancerny i Pies
, episode 13, 1969.

19.
Márai,
Memoir
, pp. 44–46.

20.
Beevor and Vinogradova, eds.,
Writer at War
, p. 326.

21.
Piotr Bojarski, “Czołg strzela do katedry, Julian fotografuje,”
Gazeta Wyborcza
, January 21, 2011.

22.
Norman Davies and Roger Moorhouse,
Microcosm: A Portrait of a European City
(New York, 2003), p. 408.

23.
BStU MfSZ, Sekr Neiber 407, p. 80.

24.
Beevor and Vinogradova,
Writer at War
, p. 330.

25.
Merridale,
Ivan’s War
, p. 381.

26.
Alexander Solzhenitsyn,
Prussian Nights
, trans. Robert Conquest (New York, 1977), pp. 38–39.

27.
Lev Kopelev,
To Be Preserved Forever
, trans. Anthony Austin (New York, 1977), p. 56.

28.
Ibid., pp. 50–51.

29.
Ibid., p. 41.

30.
Włodzimierz Borodziej and Hans Lemberg, eds.,
Niemcy w Polsce
1945–1950: Wybór Dokumentów
, vol. III (Warsaw, 2001), pp. 57–61.

31.
James Mark, “Remembering Rape,”
Past & Present
 188 (2005), pp. 133–61.

32.
Stewart Thomson, in collaboration with Robert Bialek,
The Bialek Affair
(London, 1955), pp. 31–33.

33.
See, for example, Antony Beevor,
The Fall of Berlin
1945
(New York, 2002).

34.
Milovan Djilas,
Conversations with Stalin
(New York, 1990), p. 95.

35.
Beevor,
Fall of Berlin
, p. 169.

36.
Margit Földesi,
A megszállók szabadsága
(Budapest, 2002), p. 140.

37.
Interview with Hans-Jochen Tschiche, Satuelle, November 18, 2006.

38.
“Über die Russen und über uns,”
Verlag Kultur und Fortschritt
(Berlin, 1949). Originally published in
Neues Deutschland
and
Tägliche Rundschau
, November 19, 1948.

39.
Ibid.

40.
Varga/Vargas did return to Hungary in 1946, to help the government carry out monetary reform and reintroduce the forint, the Hungarian currency.

41.
Friederike Sattler,
Wirtschaftsordnung im Übergang: Politik, Organisation und Funktion der
KPD/SED
im Land Brandenburg bei der Etablierung der Zentralen Planwirtschaft in der
SBZ
/
DDR
1945
–
52
(Münster, 2002), pp. 88–92.

42.
Serhii Plokhii,
Yalta: The Price of Peace
(New York, 2010), pp. 108–13, 256–62.

43.
Sattler,
Wirtschaftsordnung im Übergang
, pp. 94–95.

44.
Norman Naimark,
The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation,
1945
–
1949
(Cambridge, Mass., 1995), pp. 168–69.

45.
Ibid., p. 169.

46.
SAPMO-BA, DN/1 38032.

47.
Ibid.

48.
Volker Koop,
Besetzt:
Sowjetische
Besatzungspolitik in Deutschland
(Berlin, 2008), pp. 71–77.

49.
DRA, 201-00-004/001, p. 62.

50.
Naimark,
Russians in Germany
, p. 171.

51.
SAPMO-BA, DY30/IV 2/6.02 49, fiche 3.

52.
M. C. Kaser and E. A. Radice,
The Economic History of Eastern Europe, 1919–1945
, vol. II:
Interwar Policy, the War and Reconstruction
(Oxford, 1986), pp. 530–35.

53.
Iván T. Berend and Tamás Csató,
Evolution of the Hungarian Economy,
1848
–
1998
, vol. I. (Boulder, 2001), pp. 257–58.

54.
Földesi,
A megszállók szabadsága
, pp. 81–97.

55.
PIL, 174. 12/217.

56.
CAW, VIII/800/24, teczka 9.

57.
Adam Dziurok and Bogdan Musiał, “ ‘Bratni rabunek.’ O demonta˙zach i wywózce sprz˛etu z terenu Górnego Śl˛aska w 1945 r.,” in
W obj˛eciach Wielkiego Brata. Sowieci w Polsce
1944–1993
(Warsaw, 2009), pp. 321–44.

58.
He lived in the Polish mountain village of Poronin, where one of only two Lenin statues erected in Poland once stood. It was taken down in 1990, but in 2011 the city council decided to put it up again to attract tourists.

59.
Richard Pipes, ed.,
The Unknown Lenin
(New Haven, 1996), p. 90.

60.
Ibid., p. 62.

61.
For descriptions of the Marxist mentality, see Robert Conquest,
Reflections on a Ravaged Century
(New York, 1999), pp. 34–36; also François Furet,
The Passing of an Illusion: The Idea of Communism in the Twentieth Century
, trans. Deborah Furet (Chicago, 1999).

62.
What Is to Be Done
is available at
http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1901/witbd/
.

63.
Richard Pipes,
The Russian Revolution
(New York, 1991), p. 608.

64.
See Paul Lendvai,
The Hungarians: A Thousand Years of Victory in Defeat
(Princeton, 2004), pp. 369–72; Richard Pipes,
Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime,
1919
–
1924
(New York, 1994), pp. 170–72; and István György Tóth, ed.,
A Concise History of Hungary
(Budapest, 2005), pp. 487–94.

65.
Pipes,
Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime
, pp. 182–83.

66.
See Victor Serge,
Memoirs of a Revolutionary
(Oxford, 1967), for an account of the Second Congress.

67.
Martin Gilbert, “Churchill and Poland,” unpublished lecture delivered at the University of Warsaw, February 16, 2010. With thanks to Martin Gilbert.

68.
Adam Zamoyski,
Warsaw
1920: Lenin’s Failed Conquest of Europe
(London, 2008), pp. 1–13, 42.

69.
Pipes,
Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime
, p. 192.

70.
Tim Tzouliadis,
The Forsaken: An American Tragedy in Stalin’s Russia
(New York, 2008), p. 55.

1.
Quoted in Carola Stern,
Ulbricht: A Political Biography
, trans. Abe Farbstein (New York, 1965), p. 203.

2.
See Marxists’ Internet Archive,
http://www.marxists.org/archive/bulganin/1949/12/21.htm
.

3.
Stern,
Ulbricht
. Unless otherwise noted, the biographical information about Ulbricht comes from Stern’s superb biography.

4.
Ibid., p. 15.

5.
Ibid., p. 89.

6.
Elfriede Brüning
, Und außerdem war es mein Leben
(Berlin, 2004), p. 28.

7.
Walter Ulbricht,
On Questions of Socialist Construction in the
GDR
(Dresden, 1968).

8.
Stern,
Ulbricht
, p. 124.

9.
Andrzej Garlicki,
Bolesław Bierut
(Warsaw, 1994), especially pp. 1–20. See also Andrzej Werblan,
Stalinizm w Polsce
(Warsaw, 2009), pp. 122–31; and Piotr Lipiński,
Bolesław Niejasny
(Warsaw, 2001).

10.
Polska-ZSRR: Struktury Podległości: Dokumenty
KC WKP
(B)
1944
–
1949
, pp. 59–61.

11.
Interview with Jerzy Morawski, Warsaw, June 7, 2007.

12.
Lipiński,
Bolesław Niejasny
, p. 41.

13.
Both Alexander Orlov, the Soviet defector, and Józef Swiatło, the Polish defector, have described Bierut as an NKVD agent; see Garlicki,
Bolesław Bierut
, pp. 16–19, and Lipiński,
Bolesław Niejasny
, p. 40. Gomułka, Bierut’s main rival, told Khrushchev about the “Nazi agent” rumors as well, but Khrushchev waved him away.

14.
Mátyás Rákosi,
Visszaemlékezések
1940
–
1956
, vol. I (Budapest, 1997), pp. 5–26.

15.
Ibid., pp. 26–46.

16.
Rákosi is mentioned frequently in the diaries of Georgi Dimitrov. See Ivo Banac, ed.,
The Diary of Georgi Dimitrov
1933
–
1949
(New Haven, 2003).

17.
Ibid., pp. 46–83.

18.
Ibid., pp. 137–38.

19.
Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes, and Kyrill M. Anderson,
The Soviet World of American Communism
(New Haven and London, 1998), pp. 110–42. The American communist party, for example, maintained its links to the Soviet Union through J. Peters, an activist who was born in Hungary, took part in the 1919 Hungarian communist revolution, played a role in Hungarian politics, and later emigrated to America, where he continued to conduct both open and clandestine work in cooperation with the Soviet secret police.

20.
Anne Applebaum, “Now We Know,”
The New Republic
(May 31, 2009).

21.
Thomas Sgovio,
Dear America
(New York, 1979), p. 99.

22.
Banac, ed.,
Diary of Georgi Dimitrov
, p. 119.

23.
Alexander Dallin and F. I. Firsov, eds.,
Dimitrov and Stalin, 1934–1943: Letters from the Soviet Archives
(New Haven and London, 2000), pp. 28–31.

24.
Markus Wolf and Anne McElvoy,
Man Without a Face: The Autobiography of Communism’s Greatest Spymaster
(London, 1997), p. 32.

25.
Margarete Buber-Neumann,
Under Two Dictators
, trans. Edward Fitzgerald (London, 2008), p. 13.

26.
PIL, 867/1/H-168.

27.
Banac, ed.,
Diary of Georgi Dimitrov
, p. 197.

28.
Marci Shore,
Caviar and Ashes: A Warsaw Generation’s Life and Death in Marxism,
1918
–
1968
(New Haven, 2006), pp. 73–74.

29.
Ibid., pp. 123–27

30.
Ronald Aronson,
Camus and Sartre: The Story of a Friendship and the Quarrel That Ended It
(Chicago, 2004), p. 150.

31.
Banac, ed.,
Diary of Georgi Dimitrov
, p. 118.

32.
R. C. Raack, “Stalin’s Plans for World War Two Told by a High Comintern Source,”
The Historical Journal
38, 4 (December 1995), pp. 1031–36.

33.
Buber-Neumann,
Under Two Dictators
, p. 175.

34.
Piotr Gontarczyk,
Polska Partia Robotnicza: Droga do Władzy,
1941
–
1944
(Warsaw, 2003), pp. 101–2.

35.
Ibid.; also HIA, Rakowski Collecton.

36.
Comintern Archive, British Library, f.31/o.1/d.1/l.3–31.

37.
Ibid., f.31/o.2/d.1/i.1–10.

38.
Ibid.

39.
Wolfgang Leonhard,
Child of the Revolution
, trans. C. M. Woodhouse (Chicago, 1958), pp. 191–296.

40.
Ibid., p. 224.

41.
Ibid., p. 226.

42.
HIA, Berman Collection, Box 1.

43.
Deklaracja Ideowa
PZPR: Statut
PZPR
(Warsaw, 1950).

44.
Ibid.

45.
Sovietskii Faktor v Vostochnoi Evrope
, 1944–1953, vol. I (Moscow, 1999),pp. 23–48 (AVP RF, f. 6, op.6, p.14, d.145, ll. 1–41).

46.
Buber-Neumann,
Under Two Dictators
, p. 13.

47.
Arthur Koestler,
Arrow in the Blue
(London, 2005), p. 311.

48.
Leonhard,
Child of the Revolution
, p. 231.

49.
Ibid., pp. 241–51.

50.
Jo Langer,
Convictions: My Life with a Good Communist
(London, 1979), p. 30.

51. Catherine Epstein,
The Last Revolutionaries: German Communists and Their Century
(Cambridge, Mass., and London, 2003), pp. 8–9.

1.
Jens Gieseke,
The
GDR
State Security: Sword and Shield
, trans. Mary Carlene Forszt (Berlin, 2004), p. 7.

2.
Andrzej Friszke,
Polska: Losy państwa i narodu,
1939
–
1989
(Warsaw, 2003), p. 9.

3.
Manifest Lipcowy
(Warsaw, 1974), p. 5.

4.
Krystyna Kersten,
The Establishment of Communist Rule in Poland,
1943
–
1948
(Berkeley, 1991), pp. 77–160.