Iron Curtain (87 page)

5.
Martin Mevius,
Agents of Moscow: The Hungarian Communist Party and the Origins of Socialist Patriotism
(Oxford, 2005), p. 53.

6.
Krisztián Ungváry, “Magyarország szovjetizálásának kérdései,” in Ignác Romsics, ed.,
Mítoszok, legendák, tévhitek a
20. századi magyar történelemről
(Budapest, 2002), p. 294.

7.
László Borhi,
Hungary in the Cold War,
1945
–
1956: Between the United States and the Soviet Union
(New York and Budapest, 2004), p. 38.

8.
Also sometimes referred to by its Russian acronym SVAG (Sovetskaia Voennaia Administratsia v Germanii) or its German acronym SMAD (Sowjetische Militäradministration in Deutschland).

9.
Dirk Spilker,
The East German Leadership and the Division of Germany: Patriotism and Propaganda
1945
–
1953
(Oxford, 2006), p. 46.

10.
The Polish secret police were later renamed the
Stużba Bezpieczeństwa
, or SB. Their Hungarian colleagues were later named the Államvédelmi Hatóság, or ÁVH. Frequent renamings and reorganizations of the secret police were common in most communist states, as no one was ever pleased with their work.

11.
T. V. Volokitina et al., eds.,
Vostochnaya Evropa v dokumentakh rossiskikh arkhivov,
1944
–
1953
(Moscow and Novosibirsk, 1997), p. 203.

12.
Maciej Korkuć, “Kujbyszewiacy—Awangarda UB,”
Arkana
46–47 (April–May 2002), pp. 75–95.

13.
IPN, BU 0447/120, pp. 5–12.

14.
Ibid., pp. 13–15.

15.
For the Jewish story, see Allan Levine,
Fugitives of the Forest: The Heroic Story of Jewish Resistance and Survival During the Second World War
(New York, 2008).

16.
Korkuć, “Kujbyszewiacy—Awangarda UB,” pp. 75–95.

17.
IPN, BU 0447/120, pp. 5–12.

18.
Krzystof Persak and Łukasz Kaminski, eds.,
A Handbook of the Communist Security Apparatus in East Central Europe,
1944
–
1989
(Warsaw, 2005).

19.
Konrad Rokicki, “Aparatu obraz Własny,” in “
Zwyczajny” Resort
(Warsaw, 2005), p. 26.

20.
Sławomir Poleszak et al., eds.,
Rok Pierwszy: Powstanie i Działalność
aparatu bezpieczeństwa publicznego na Lubelszczyźnie (Lipiec
1944–Czerwiec
1945)
(Warsaw, 2004), pp. 50–55.

21.
Rokicki, “Aparatu obraz Własny,” pp. 13–32.

22.
Interview with Czesław Kiszczak, Warsaw, May 25, 2007. See also Witold Bereś and Jerzy Skoczylas,
Generał Kiszczak Mowi … Prawie Wszytko
(Warsaw, 1991).

23.
IPN, 352/7. With thanks to Andrzej Paczkowski and Dariusz Stola.

24.
Zsolt Krahulcsán, Rolf Müller, and Mária Palasik,
A politikai rendőrség háború utáni megszervezése (1944–1946)
, unpublished manuscript, pp. 3–4.

25.
Gábor Baczoni,
Pár(t)viadal—A Magyar Államrendőrség Vidéki Főkapitányságának Politikai Rendészeti osztálya,
1945
–
1946
(Budapest, 2002), p. 81.

26.
Zsolt Krahulcsán and Rolf Müller, eds.,
Dokumentumok a magyar politikai rendőrség történetéből
1. A politikai rendészeti osztályok
1945
–
1946
(Budapest, 2010), pp. 9–63.

27.
PIL, 274/11/10, pp. 6–7.

28.
Ibid., pp. 1–12.

29.
In 2002, the building became the Terror Háza, a museum dedicated to the crimes of both the Nazi and Soviet regimes.

30.
Krahulcsán, Müller, and Palasik,
A politikai rendőrség háború utáni megszervezése
, pp. 5–6.

31.
Sándor M. Kiss, from the introduction to Géza Böszörményi,
Recsk
1950
–
1953
(Budapest, 2005), p. 10.

32.
Vladimir Farkas,
Nincs mentség
(Budapest, 1990), p. 106.

33.
Krahulćsan and Müller, eds.,
Dokumentumok a magyar politikal,
pp. 159–60 and pp. 237–38.

34.
Mária Palasik, “A politikai rendőrség háború utáni megszervezése,” in György Gyarmati, ed.,
Államvédelem a Rákosi-korszakban
(Budapest, 2000), p. 39; also György Gyarmati, “János Kádár és a Belügyminisztérium Államvédelmi Hatósága,” in
A Történeti Hivatal Évkönyve
(Budapest, 1999), pp. 118–20; and Baráth Magdolna, “Gerő Ernő a Belügyminisztérium élén,” in
A Történeti Hivatal
Évkönyve
(Budapest, 1999), p. 159.

35.
MOL, XIX-B-1-r-787/1945.

36.
Kajári Erzsébet,
A magyar Belügyminisztérium szovjet tanácsadói
(Múltunk, 1999/3), pp. 220–27.

37.
Farkas,
Nincs mentség
, p. 128.

38.
Magyar Internacionalisták
(Budapest, 1980);
Magyar tudóslexikon A-tól Zs-ig
(Budapest, 1998), p. 192.

39.
PIL, 867/f.11/g-24, pp. 15–58.

40.
Ibid.

41.
From conversations with Mária Schmidt, Sándor M. Kiss, and Barbara Bank; also Böszörményi,
Recsk
, p. 49.

42.
Klaus Eichner and Gotthold Schramm, eds.,
Angriff und Abwehr
:
Die deutschen Geheimdienste nach
1945
(Berlin, 2007); also Roger Engelmann, “ ‘Schild und Schwert’ als Exportartikel: Aufbau und Anleitung der ostdeutschen Staatssicherheit durch das KGB und seine Vorläufer (1949–1959),” in Andreas Hilger, Mike Schmeitzner, and Ute Schmidt, eds.,
Diktaturdurchsetzung. Instrumente und Methoden der kommunistischen Machtsicherung in der SSB/DDR
1945
–
1955
(Dresden 2001), pp. 55–64.

43.
Engelmann, “ ‘Schild und Schwert,’ ” pp. 55–64; Norman Naimark, “To Know Everything and to Report Everything Worth Knowing: Building the East German Police State, 1945–1949,” Cold War International History Project Working Paper no. 10, August 1994.

44.
BStU MfSZ, HA IX, no. 20603, p. 2.

45.
Jens Gieseke,
Die
DDR-Staatssicherheit: Schild und Schwert der Partei
(Bonn, 2000), p. 18.

46.
Engelmann, “ ‘Schild und Schwert,’ ” pp. 55–64.

47.
Interview with Klaus Eichner and Gotthold Schramm, Berlin, June 24, 2008.

48.
BStU MfSZ, Sekr. D. Min. no. 1920.

49.
Engelmann, “ ‘Schild und Schwert,’ ” pp. 55–64.

50.
BStU MfSZ, HA VII, no. 4000, pp. 16–17.

51.
Gary Bruce,
The Firm: The Inside Story of the Stasi
(Oxford, 2010), p. 34.

52.
Interview with Schramm.

53.
Gieseke,
Die DDR-Staatssicherheit,
p. 19.

54.
Interview taken from
Das Ministerium für Staatssicherheit
, documentary film, directed by Christian Klemke and Jan Lorenzen, Berlin, 2007.

55.
Interview with Schramm.

56.
Document in Günter Tschirwitz’s possession.

57.
Interview with Günter Tschirwitz, Berlin, June 24, 2008.

58.
Richard Pipes, ed.,
The Unknown Lenin
(New Haven, 1996), p. 154.

59.
BStU MfSZ, 1486/2, part 1 of 2, p. 11.

60.
Amir Weiner, “Nature, Nurture, and Memory in a Socialist Utopia: Delineating the Soviet Socio-Ethnic Body in the Age of Socialism,”
The American Historical Review
104, 4 (October 1999), p. 1,121.

61.
IPN, 352/7. With thanks to Andrzej Paczkowski and Dariusz Stola.

62.
BStU MfSZ, 1486/2, part 1 of 2.

63.
Ibid., HA XVIII, no. 922, p. 210.

64.
Kati Marton,
Enemies of the People: My Family’s Journey to America
(New York, 2009), p. 118.

65.
BStU MfSZ, HA VII, no. 4000, p. 36.

66.
Ibid., Ff 39/52.

67.
Ibid.

1.
Wolfgang Leonhard,
Child of the Revolution
, trans. C. M. Woodhouse (Chicago, 1958), p. 381.

2.
This is Timothy Snyder’s point in
Sketches from a Secret War
(New Haven and London, 2005), p. 210.

3.
See Tony Judt on retribution in
Postwar
(New York, 2005), pp. 41–53.

4.
Amir Weiner made this point during a talk at the Hoover Archive Russia Summer Workshop, July 2011.

5.
RGANI, 89/18/4, pp.1–3; from the collection of the late Alexander Kokurin.

6.
T. V. Volokitina et al., eds.,
Vostochnaya Evropa v dokumentakh rossiskikh arkhivov
1944
–
1953
(Moscow and Novosibirsk, 1997), p. 42.

7.
Quoted in Mark Kramer, “Stalin, Soviet Policy, and the Consolidation of a Communist Bloc in Eastern Europe, 1944–1953,” p. 13, paper delivered at the Freeman Spogli International Institute, April 30, 2010.

8.
Krystyna Kersten,
The Establishment of Communist Rule in Poland,
1943
–
1948
(Berkeley, 1991), p. 286.

9.
Andrzej Paczkowski has a good, short English summary of the Home Army’s formation in
The Spring Will Be Ours: Poland and the Poles from Occupation to Freedom
, trans. Jane Cave (University Park, Pa., 2003), pp. 83–89.

10.
Ibid., p. 116.

11.
Ibid., p. 118.

12.
Apoloniusz Zawilski,
Polskie Fronty
1918
–
1945
, vol. 2 (Warsaw, 1997), p. 7.

13.
Ibid., pp. 458–66.

14.
Ibid., p. 45.

15.
Keith Sword,
Deportation and Exile: Poles in the Soviet Union,
1939
–
1948
(London, 1996), pp. 144–47.

16.
CAW, Opis VIII/800/19 (NKWD ZSRR), folder 10, pp. 3 and 6.

17.
Ibid., p. 4.

18.
CAW, Opis VIII/900/19 (NKWD USSR), folder 10, p. 9.

19.
Ibid., Opis VIII/800/29/1 (NKWD USSR), folder 1, pp. 1–2

20.
Ibid., Opis VIII/800/19 (NKWD ZSRR), folder 10, pp. 6–10.

21.
Nikita Petrov,
Ivan Serov: Pervyi Predsedatel’
KGB
(Moscow, 2005), pp. 21–34; also Sword,
Deportation and Exile
, p. 14.

22.
CAW, Opis VIII/800/19 (NKWD ZSRR), folder 11, pp. 1–2.

23.
Karta, Janusz Zawisza-Hrybacz, II/1730.

24.
Karta, Henryk Sawala, II/3315.

25.
Stanisław Ciesielski, Wojuech Materski, and Andrzej Paczkowski,
Represje Sowieckie wobec Polaków i obywateli polskich
, Ośrodek Karta (Warsaw, 2002), p. 27.

26.
Zawilski,
Polskie Fronty
, vol. 2, p. 256.

27.
There are many excellent accounts of the Warsaw Uprising. The most recent in English is Norman Davies,
Rising
’
44
(New York, 2004).

28.
CAW, Opis VIII/800/29/4 (NKWD ZSRR), p. 197.

29.
Ibid., Opis VIII/800/19 (NKWD ZSRR), folder 13, p. 33.

30.
Ibid., folder 11, pp. 70–80.

31.
Ibid., Opis VIII/800/13 (NKWD ZSRR), folder 13, p. 33; also folder 12, p. 38.

32.
Andrzej Panufnik,
Composing Myself
(London, 1987), p. 131.

33.
Interviews with Szymon Bojko, Warsaw, May 28 and June 4, 2008.

34.
Andrzej Friske,
Opozycja Polityczna w
PRL
,
1945
–
1980
(London, 1994), p. 9.

35.
The text of the Yalta treaty is available at
http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/yalta.asp
.

36.
Kersten,
Establishment of Communist Rule in Poland
, p. 125.

37.
HIA, Jakub Berman collection, folder 1:6.

38.
Kersten,
Establishment of Communist Rule in Poland
, p. 135.

39.
Ibid., p. 126.

40.
Sławomir Poleszak et al., eds.,
Rok Pierwszy: Powstanie i Działalność
aparatu bezpieczeństwa publicznego na Lubelszczyźnie (Lipiec
1944–Czerwiec
1945)
(Warsaw, 2004), p. 397.

41.
Snyder,
Sketches from a Secret War
, p. 207.

42.
Notes on WiN from the introduction to Jozefa Huchlowa et al., eds.,
Zrzeszenie “Wolnosc I niezawislosc” w dokumentach
, vol. I (Wrocław, 1997).

43.
Justyna Wojcik, ed.,
Ántykomunistyczne Organizacje Mlodziezowe w Malopolsce w Latach
1944
–
1956
(Kraków, 2008), pp. 33–34.

44.
Poleszak et al., eds.,
Rok Pierwszy
, pp. 179–80.

45.
CAW, Opis VIII/800/13 (NKWD ZSRR), folder 15, p. 31.

46.
Anita Pra˙zmowska,
Civil War in Poland,
1942
–
1948
(New York, 2004), p. 153.

47.
Poleszak et al., eds.,
Rok Pierwszy
, pp. 352–83.

48.
AAN, MEN/587, pp. 2–3.

49.
Karta, Memoir Archives, Lucjan Grabowski, II/1412.

50.
Jakub Nawrocki, “Do Krwi Ostatnej,”
Polska Zbrojna
8 (February 20, 2011), pp. 60–62. Krupa went to prison but was released in 1965. He died in 1972.

51.
IPN, Rz 05/36/CD.

52.
CAW, Opis VIII/800/19 (NKWD ZSRR), folder 18, p. 13.

53.
Interview with Erich Loest, Leipzig, December 12, 2006.

54.
For an account of de-Nazification in western Germany, see Frederick Taylor,
Exorcising Hitler: The Occupation and Denazification of Germany
(London, 2011), pp. 260–76.

55.
The Potsdam protocol is available at
http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/decade17.asp
.