Modern Islamist Movements: History, Religion, and Politics (8 page)

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Authors: Jon Armajani

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Notes

 

  1. This is a quotation from a senior American government official that appears in David Johnston, Judith Miller, and Don Van Natta, “Qaeda’s New Links Increase Threats from Far-Flung Sites,” New York Times, June 16, 2002.
  2. There has been a substantial amount of debate in academic circles regarding the

merits and demerits of using the terms“Islamism,”“Islamic revivalism,”“Islamic fundamentalism,” and/or other terms in referring to this current within Islam. “Islamism” is being used in this book for a variety of reasons, including the possibility that it may be least confusing to a general readership.

  1. R. Stephen Humphreys, “Islam and Political Values in Saudi Arabia, Egypt and Syria,” Middle East Journal 33, no. 1 (Winter 1979): 1–19.
  2. Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby, “The Fundamentalism Project: A User’s

Guide,” in The Fundamentalism Project, vol. 1, Fundamentalisms Observed, ed. Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), vii–xiv. See also Religion and American Cultures: An Encyclopedia of Traditions, Diversity, and Popular Expressions, ed. Gary Laderman and Luis León (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2003), s.v. “Fundamentalism” (by Jon Armajani).

  1. Judy Keen, “Cabinet Restructuring Is Complex Job,” USA Today, June 7, 2002; Michael O’Hanlon and Peter Orszag, “Homeland Security Reform: A First Step,” Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, June 9, 2002; Ronald Brownstein, “Right Leads Assault on CIA, FBI at Bush’s Expense. Intelligence: Leading Conservatives Drive for Reform After Missteps, Complicating the White House Response,” Los Angeles Times, June 6, 2002; Karen Masterson, “Bush’s Budget Promise Goes Bust; Burgeoning Domestic Programs Plus Costs to Run the War on Terrorism Are Adding up to the Nation’s Largest Spending Increases Since the 1960s,” Houston Chronicle, May 7, 2002.
  2. The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Muslim Population, October 2009 (Washington, DC: Pew Research Center, 2009), 1,
    http://pewforum.org/newassets/images/reports/Muslimpopulation/
    Muslimpopulation.pdf (accessed October 10, 2009).
  3. Ibid.
  4. The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Muslim Population, Map: Distribution of Muslim Population by Country and Territory, October 2009,
    http://pewforum.org/docs/?DocID=451
    http://pewforum.org/newassets/images/reports/Muslimpopulation/
    Muslimpopulation.pdf (accessed October 10, 2009).
  5. Ibrahim Warde, The Price of Fear: The Truth Behind the Financial War on Terror (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007), 174.
  6. Humphreys, “Islam and Political Values,” 3.
  7. Associated Press, “Fighting Terror: The Bin Laden Tape Text; Independent Transcription of Bin Laden Tape,” Boston Globe, December 14, 2001; Robert Fisk,“Where the Taliban’s Warriors for Islam Are Born,” Independent (London), March 31, 2000.

 

  1. Wire Reports, “Taliban Promises to Protect Suspected Terrorist Bin Laden,”

Baltimore Sun, November 6, 1998.

  1. Humphreys, “Islam and Political Values,” 4–5.
  2. Ibid. 15 Ibid., 10.

16 Ibid., 10–11.

  1. Jonathan Riley-Smith, ed., Oxford History of the Crusades (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 35–59.
  2. Carole Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives (New York: Routledge, 2000), 589–614.
  3. For some perspectives on such historic reconstructions and the role of the Crusades in the imagined histories of Westerners and Muslims, see, for example, Jonathan Riley-Smith, The Crusades, Christianity, and Islam (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008), 45–80; and Thomas F. Madden, The New Concise History of the Crusades, updated edn. (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2005), 213–25. For a set of interpretations that differ in some respects from those of Riley-Smith and Madden, see, for example, Amin Maalouf, The Crusades Through Arab Eyes, trans. Jon Rothschild (New York: Schocken, 1985), 261–6.
    1. Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd edn., ed. P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth,

E. van Donzel, and W.P. Heinrichs, s.v. “Crusades” (by Cl. Cahen),
www.
brillonline.nl/subscriber/entry?entry=islam_SIM-7707 (accessed October 8, 2009); Riley-Smith, The Crusades, Christianity, and Islam, 45–61; Madden, The New Concise History of the Crusades, 204–12.

  1. James E. Lindsay, Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World (Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 2005), 74; Madden, The New Concise History of the Crusades, 5–7.
  2. Madden, The New Concise History of the Crusades, 7–9; Jonathan Riley-Smith,

The Crusades: A History, 2nd edn. (London: Continuum, 2005), 3–10.

  1. Riley-Smith, The Crusades: A History, 32–9; Riley-Smith, The Crusades, Christianity, and Islam, 69–70.
  2. Madden, The New Concise History of the Crusades, 127–41; Riley-Smith, The Crusades: A History, 163–8.
  3. Riley-Smith, The Crusades: A History, 270–6. For information on the renaming of Istanbul in the 1920s, see Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire, ed. Gábor Ágoston and Bruce Masters (New York: Facts on File, 2009), s.v. “Istanbul” (by Edhem Eldem).
  4. Desmond Tutu, “Apartheid in the Holy Land,” Guardian (London), April 29, 2002; Noam Chomsky, “Not a Fair Fight; Thanks to U.S. Collusion Israel Always Has the Upper Hand Over the Palestinians,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, August 15, 2001.
  5. William L. Cleveland, A History of the Modern Middle East, 2nd edn. (Boulder, CO: Westview, 2000), 233–64.
  6. Jimmy Carter, “U.S. Should Do More For Peace,” The Atlanta Journal- Constitution, April 23, 2002.
  7. Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics, www.cbs.gov.il; Israel Tourist Information Center,
    www.ddtravel-acc.com/israel.htm;
    Peter Ford, “Why Do They Hate Us?” Christian Science Monitor, September 27, 2001.

 

  1. Charles D. Smith, Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 4th edn. (New York: Bedford/St Martin’s, 2001), 58–129; Lee Hockstader, “Reports of Torture by Israelis Emerge; Rights Groups Document Frequent Police Abuses Against Palestinians,” Washington Post, August 18, 2001; Julian Borger, “Israeli Government Report Admits Systematic Torture of Palestinians,” Guardian (London), February 11, 2000.
  2. Teresa Castle, “TV Images of Palestinians Suffering Sway Arab World; Round-the-Clock Broadcasts Feed War Fever Among Younger Viewers,” San Francisco Chronicle, May 5, 2002; Deborah Sontag, “Rage Builds Against Israel; Palestinians in Gaza Displaced as Israeli Army Bulldozes Homes,” New York Times, December 10, 2000.
  3. Danna Harman, “Israel Assesses the Damage,” Christian Science Monitor, April 19, 2002; Rashid I. Khalidi,“Powell Must Seek Real Compromise,” Washington Post, April 11, 2002. Updates of the numbers of Israelis and Palestinians killed and wounded are posted on the Palestinian Red Crescent Society’s website at
    www.palestinercs.org
    and at
    www.electronicintifada.net/new.html
  4. “Country Profile: Israel and Palestinian Territories,” BBC News website, August 20, 2009,
    http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/803257.
    stm (accessed October 8, 2009); Institute for Advanced Strategic and Political Studies, “High Priced Electricity,” December 13, 2001,
    www.israeleconomy.org/
    nbn/nbn489.htm (accessed October 8, 2009); Jerusalem Media and Communication Centre, “Poverty in Palestine,” January 4, 1998, www.jmcc. org/media/report/98/Jan/4f.htm (accessed October 8, 2009).
  5. Edward Pilkington, “Middle East Crisis: To Have and Not Have in Gaza: Palestinians in al-Mawasi Queue in the Heat While Nearby Israelis Dip in Their Pools,” Guardian (London), July 4, 2001; Rebecca Trounson, “Water Shortage Creates Tension for Israel, Arabs,” Los Angeles Times, April 18, 1999.
  6. Desmond Tutu, “Apartheid in the Holy Land,” April 29, 2002, Guardian (London); Tim Cornwell, “U.N. Tells Israel to End Its ‘Illegal Occupation’ of Palestinian Land,” The Scotsman, March 13, 2002.
  7. Howard M. Sachar, A History of Israel: From the Rise of Zionism to Our Time

(New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1988), 195–226.

37 Ibid., 282–3.

  1. Ibid.
  2. Victor Davis Hanson, “Project Moral Purpose; You Will Keep American Support,” The Jerusalem Post, June 7, 2002.
  3. Shirl McArthur, “A Conservative Total for U.S. Aid to Israel: $91 Billion – and

Counting,” Washington Report on Middle East Affairs (January–February 2001): 15–16.

  1. Roula Khalaf, “Comment and Analysis: Opposition to the War Has Cost the Damascus Regime Dear,” Financial Times (London), August 26, 2003.
  2. Edward Alden, “U.S. Tightens the Screw Over Hamas Funding,” Financial

Times (London), August 23, 2003.

  1. Dore Gold, “Widening Diplomatic Chessboard,” Financial Times (London), June 7, 1991.
  2. Bruce Anderson, “The U.S. Has Got It Right: The Case for War Is Irresistible: Regime Change in Iraq Will Benefit the Country and the Region,” Guardian (London), August 13, 2002.

 

  1. Avi Shlaim, “Curtains for a Palestine Window? Unless the U.S. Gets Tough with Shamir, the Gulf War Momentum for Arab-Israeli Peace Will Be Lost,” Guardian (London), June 15, 1991.
  2. Smith, Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 195–210, 261–93, 301–39. 47 Ibid., 357–63.
  1. Tom Cooney, “Arafat and His Nightmare Regime Must Go,” The Irish Times, June 28, 2002.
  2. Editorial, “Mideast Bloodshed Intensifies Need for Peace,” USA Today, April 1, 2002.
  3. Yossi Klein Halevi, “Does the World Prefer It When Jews Are Victims?” Los Angeles Times, April 12, 2002.
  4. Said Amir Arjomand, The Turban for the Crown: The Islamic Revolution in Iran (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 112–31, 85–102.
  5. News and Wire Services,“Laying Siege to Saddam,” The Australian, January 10, 2002; Jim McBeth, “British and U.S. Planes Attack Iraq Again in Battle that Never Ends,” The Scotsman, October 6, 2001.
  6. Elaine Sciolino, “U.S. Rethinks Its Role in Saudi Arabia,” New York Times, March 10, 2002.
  7. Marshall G.S. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam, vol. 2, The Classical Age of Islam (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974), 146–278.

55 Ibid., 241–71.

  1. Fawaz A. Gerges,“What’s Behind the New Arab Momentum,” New York Times, March 15, 2002.
  2. John L. Esposito, The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality? 3rd edn. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 45–73.
  3. Emmanuel Sivan, Radical Islam: Medieval Theology and Modern Politics

(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), 6–15.

  1. David Cook, Understanding Jihad (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 32–48.
  2. Akbar S. Ahmed, Islam Today: A Short Introduction to the Muslim World (New York: I.B. Tauris, 1999), 8–11; Reuven Firestone, Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 16–18.
  3. See, for example, Lindsay, Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World, 58–60.
  4. Firestone, Jihad, 16–18.
  5. Ibid.
  6. Sivan, Radical Islam, 96–128.
  7. Ahmed, Islam Today, 16–18.
  8. Usama bin Laden, “Declaration of War Against the Americans Occupying the Land of the Two Holy Places,” in Yonah Alexander and Michael S. Swetnam, Usama bin Laden’s al-Qaida: Profile of a Terrorist Network (Ardsley, NY: Transnational, 2001), Appendix 1A, 10–22.
  9. Ibid.
  10. Gerges, “What’s Behind the New Arab Momentum.”
  11. Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj al-Qushayri, Sahih as quoted in the Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World, ed. John L. Esposito (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), s.v. “Jihad” (by Rudolph Peters).
  12. For detailed explanations of al-Qaida’s Islamic justifications for attacks against Western interests as defensive forms of jihad, see Quintan Wiktorowicz,

 

“The New Global Threat: Transnational Salafis and Jihad,” Middle East Policy 8, no. 4 (December 2001): 18–38; and Quintan Wiktorowicz and John Kaltner, “Killing in the Name of Islam: Al-Qaeda’s Justification for September 11,” Middle East Policy 10, no. 2 (Summer 2003): 76–92.

  1. Bin Laden, “Declaration of War Against the Americans Occupying the Land of the Two Holy Places.”
  2. Luis León, La Llorona’s Children: Religion, Life, and Death in the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), vii–x. See also León’s “Metaphor and Place: The U.S.-Mexico Border as Center and Periphery in the Interpretation of Religion,” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 67, no. 3 (Summer 1999): 543.
  3. Martin Luther King, Jr., I Have a Dream: Writings and Speeches that Changed the World, ed. James M. Washington (San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1992); Malcolm X, By Any Means Necessary (New York: Pathfinder, 1992); Dalai Lama XIV, Violence and Compassion (New York: Image Books, 2001).
  4. León, “Metaphor and Place,” 541–72.
  5. Theodor Herzl and Harry Zohn, The Jewish State (New York: Herzl Press, 1989).
  6. Desmond Tutu and John Allen, The Rainbow People of God: The Making of a Peaceful Revolution (New York: Image Books, 1996).
  7. Nivien Saleh, “Egypt: Osama’s Star Is Rising,” Middle East Policy 9, no. 3 (September 2002): 40–4.
  8. Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures (New York: Basic Books, 1973), 259.
  9. Ibid.
  10. Zaffar Abbas, “Yesterday’s Hero Now a Mere Memory,” Los Angeles Times, January 27, 2002.
  11. Emile Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (New York: Free Press, 1995), 99–157.
  12. Jane Perlez, “Asian Militants: School in Indonesia Urges ‘Personal Jihad’ in Steps of Bin Laden,” New York Times, February 3, 2002.
  13. Elisabeth Bumiller, Carlotta Gall, and Salman Masood, “Bin Laden’s Secret Life

in a Diminished World,” New York Times, May 7, 2011.

  1. Columbia International Affairs Online at
    www.ciaonet.org
    carries excerpts from Bin Laden’s videos and his use of Islamic sacred ideas and images is evident there.
  2. Pew Research Center: Pew Global Attitudes Project, “Osama bin Laden Largely Discredited Among Muslim Publics in Recent Years,” May 2, 2011,
    http://pew-
    global.org/2011/05/02/osama-bin-laden-largely-discredited-among-muslim- publics-in-recent-years (accessed May 14, 2011); David D. Kirkpatrick, “A Scattering of Protests Honoring Bin Laden,” New York Times, May 6, 2011.

MSANEWS/199610/19961012.3.html (accessed October 8, 2009).

  1. Usama bin Laden, “Interview with al-Jazeerah (Excerpts),” in Al-Qaeda in Its Own Words, ed. Gilles Kepel and Jean-Pierre Milelli, trans. Pascale Ghazale (Cambridge, MA: Belknap University Press of Harvard University Press, 2008), 59.

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