The Fever: How Malaria Has Ruled Humankind for 500,000 Years (38 page)

   
8
. Herbert S. Klein,
The Atlantic Slave Trade
(Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 68.

   
9
. Philip D. Curtin,
Disease and Empire: The Health of European Troops in the Conquest of Africa
(Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 21.

 
10
. Letter from David Livingstone to Dr. James Ormiston McWilliam, November 28, 1860, available at
www.livingstoneonline.ucl.ac.uk
, published in
Transactions of the Epidemiological Society of London
, 1860.

 
11
. Klein,
The Atlantic Slave Trade
, 59.

 
12
. Philip D. Curtin, “Epidemiology and the Slave Trade,”
Political Science Quarterly
83, no. 2 ( June 1968): 190–216; Curtin,
Disease and Empire
, 1.

 
13
. Curtin,
Disease and Empire
, 3.

 
14
. Ann Vileisis,
Discovering the Unknown Landscape: A History of America’s Wetlands
(Washington, D.C.: Island Press), 4.

 
15
. Ibid., 16.

 
16
. W. V. King and G. H. Bradley, “Distribution of the Nearctic Species of Anopheles” and “Bionomics and Ecology of Nearctic Anopheles,” in Forest Ray Moulton, ed.,
A Symposium on Human Malaria with Special Reference to North America and the Caribbean Region
(Washington, D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1941), 71–87.

 
17
. Jon Kukla, “Kentish Agues and American Distempers: The Transmission of Malaria from England to Virginia in the Seventeenth Century,”
Southern Studies
25, no. 2 (Summer 1986): 135–47.

 
18
. Quoted in Kukla, “Kentish Agues and American Distempers,” 135–47.

 
19
. See Thomas J. Wertenbaker,
Virginia Under the Stuarts, 1607–1988
(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1914), 11; Darrett B. Rutman and Anita H. Rutman, “Of Agues and Fevers: Malaria in the Early Chesapeake,”
The William and Mary Quarterly
33, no. 1 ( January 1976): 31–60; Alan Taylor,
American Colonies: The Settling of North America
(New York: Penguin, 2001), 130–31. Margaret Humphreys agrees with Wyndham Blanton and Carville Earle, who argue that the deadly fevers that afflicted the Jamestown colonists were probably typhoid, not malaria, because the colonists were not nonimmune to
vivax
, and there was no source of
falciparum
—Margaret Humphreys,
Malaria: Poverty, Race, and Public Health in the United States
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), 24.

 
20
. Quoted in Rutman and Rutman, “Of Agues and Fevers,” 31–60.

 
21
. Taylor,
American Colonies
, 145.

 
22
. Ibid., 147.

 
23
. Kukla, “Kentish Agues and American Distempers,” 135–47.

 
24
. Mary J. Dobson, “Mortality Gradients and Disease Exchanges: Comparisons from Old England and Colonial America,”
Social History of Medicine
2, no. 3 (December 1989): 259–97.

 
25
. Oliver Wendell Holmes,
Boylston Prize Dissertations for the Years 1836 and 1837
(Boston: Charles C. Little and James Brown, 1838), 11–12.

 
26
. Dobson, “Mortality Gradients and Disease Exchanges,” 259–97.

 
27
. Klein,
The Atlantic Slave Trade
, 21, 27, 28, and Curtin, “Epidemiology and the Slave Trade,” 190–216.

 
28
. Klein,
The Atlantic Slave Trade
, 2.

 
29
. Curtin, “Epidemiology and the Slave Trade,” 190–216.

 
30
. Klein,
The Atlantic Slave Trade
, 10.

 
31
. Ibid., 72, 120–26.

 
32
. Ibid., 91.

 
33
. Ibid., 77, 122, 125, 152.

 
34
. Alexander Falconbridge,
An Account of the Slave Trade on the Coast of Africa
(London: J. Phillips, 1788), 11, 51.

 
35
. Klein,
The Atlantic Slave Trade
, 81, 125.

 
36
. St. Julien Ravenel Childs,
Malaria and Colonization in the Carolina Low Country 1526–1696
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1940), 28.

 
37
. Quoted in Karen Ordahl Kupperman, “Fear of Hot Climates in the Anglo-American Colonial Experience,”
William and Mary Quarterly
41, no. 2 (April 1984): 213–40.

 
38
. James Stevens Simmons,
Malaria in Panama
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1939), 6.

 
39
. Ibid., 4.

 
40
. John Prebble,
The Darién Disaster: A Scots Colony in the New World, 1698–1700
(New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1968), 76.

 
41
. Simmons,
Malaria in Panama
, 6.

 
42
. Ibid., 6–7.

 
43
. Ibid., 4.

 
44
. Ignacio J. Gallup-Diaz,
The Door of the Seas and Key to the Universe
(New York: Columbia University Press, 2000).

 
45
. Taylor,
American Colonies
, 217.

 
46
. Ravenel Childs,
Malaria and Colonization
, 245.

 
47
. Ibid., 231.

 
48
. Ibid., 221.

 
49
. Peter H. Wood,
Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 Through the Stono Rebellion
(New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1975), 67.

 
50
. Ibid.

 
51
. Fiammetta Rocco,
The Miraculous Fever-Tree: Malaria and the Quest for a Cure That Changed the World
(New York: HarperCollins, 2003), 171–74.

 
52
. H. Roy Merrens and George D. Terry, “Dying in Paradise: Malaria, Mortality, and the Perceptual Environment in Colonial South Carolina,”
Journal of Southern History
50, no. 4 (November 1984): 542.

 
53
. Jill Dubisch, “Low Country Fevers: Cultural Adaptations to Malaria in An tebellum South Carolina,”
Social Science and Medicine
21, no. 6 (1985): 641–49.

 
54
. Todd L. Savitt, “Slave Health,” in Todd L. Savitt and James Harvey Young, eds.,
Disease and Distinctiveness in the American South
(Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1988), 124–25.

 
55
. Quoted in Wood,
Black Majority
, 83.

 
56
. Quoted in Dubisch, “Low Country Fevers,” 641–49.

 
57
. See “Prevalence of the Sickle Cell Trait in Adults of Charlestown County, S.C.: An Epidemiological Study,”
Archives of Environmental Health
17 (1968): 891–98, quoted in Wood,
Black Majority
, 89.

 
58
. Curtin, “Epidemiology and the Slave Trade,” 190–216.

 
59
. Taylor,
American Colonies
, 231.

 
60
. Prebble,
The Darién Disaster
, 17–18.

 
61
. Ibid., 12.

 
62
. Ibid., 63.

 
63
. Wafer had also helpfully aquired antimalarial cinchona bark in northern Chile in the 1680s. James L. A. Webb,
Humanity’s Burden: A Global History of Malaria
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 96. Also Prebble,
The Darién Disaster
, 68–69.

 
64
. See
www.bbc.co.uk/weather/features/understanding/scotland_01.shtml
.

 
65
. Prebble,
The Darién Disaster
, 42.

 
66
. Ibid., 91.

 
67
. Quoted in Dennis R. Hidalgo, “To Get Rich for Our Homeland: The Company of Scotland and the Colonization of the Darién,”
Colonial Latin American Historical Review
10, no. 3 (Summer/Verano 2001): 311–50.

 
68
. Prebble,
The Darién Disaster
, 61, 65, 80, 97–100.

 
69
. Ibid., 120–28.

 
70
. Klein,
The Atlantic Slave Trade
, 134.

 
71
. They sent just one hundred soldiers, out of four hundred who left Scotland. Prebble,
The Darién Disaster
, 128–44, 151–72, 189.

 
72
. Gallup-Diaz,
The Door of the Seas and Key to the Universe
.

 
73
. Hidalgo, “To Get Rich for Our Homeland.”

 
74
. From National Archives of Scotland, GD406/1/4372.

 
75
. Prebble,
The Darién Disaster
, 176, 182, 198.

 
76
. Letter from George Douglas, April 10, 1699. From National Archives of Scotland, GD446/39/16.

 
77
. From National Archives of Scotland, GD406/1/4372.

 
78
. Prebble,
The Darién Disaster
, 204.

 
79
. Ibid., 200–46.

 
80
. Letter from Alexander Shields, February 2, 1700. From Registrar General for Scotland, OPR453/9, p. 139, cited in National Archives of Scotland, “The Darién Adventure,” text to an exhibition, 1998–1999.

 
81
. Prebble,
The Darién Disaster
, 247, 255.

 
82
. Christopher Storrs, “Disaster at Darién (1698–1700)? The Persistence of Spanish Imperial Power on the Eve of the Demise of the Spanish Habsburgs,”
European History Quarterly
29, no. 1 (1999): 5–37.

 
83
. Prebble,
The Darién Disaster
, 269–307.

 
84
. Mike Ibeji,
The Darién Venture
, BBCi History, January 5, 2001, available at
www.bbc.co.uk/history/state/nations/scotland_darien_01.htm
.

 
85
. Prebble,
The Darién Disaster
, 311.

 
86
. Andrew Spielman lecture, “Malaria and Human Affairs,” course, Harvard University, March 2, 2006.

 
87
. James O. Breeden, “Disease as a Factor in Southern Distinctiveness,” in Savitt and Young, eds.,
Disease and Distinctiveness in the American South
, 3.

 
88
. Taylor,
American Colonies
, 154.

 
89
. Humphreys,
Malaria: Poverty, Race, and Public Health in the United States
, 25.

 
90
. Taylor,
American Colonies
, 154.

 
91
. Samuel A. Cartwright, “Report on the Diseases and Physical Peculiarities of the Negro Race,”
New Orleans Medical and Surgical Journal
(May 1851): 694.

 
92
. Quoted in J.D.B. De Bow,
The Industrial Resources, Etc., of the Southern and Western States: Embracing a View of Their Commerce, Agriculture, Manufactures, Internal Improvements; Slave and Free Labor, Slavery Institutions, Products, etc., of the South
(New Orleans, La.: Office of De Bow’s Review, 1852), 308.