The Fever: How Malaria Has Ruled Humankind for 500,000 Years (41 page)
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Authors: Sonia Shah
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30
. Ibid., 59–61.
31
. Ibid., 38.
32
. Ibid., 55.
33
. Ibid., 51.
34
. Ibid., 50, 62.
35
. Ibid., 54.
36
. Ibid., 61.
37
. Ibid., 66.
38
. Snowden,
The Conquest of Malaria
, 46–47.
39
. M. L. Duran-Reynals,
The Fever Bark Tree
(New York: Doubleday and Co., 1946), 212–27.
40
. Rocco,
The Miraculous Fever-Tree
, 110.
41
. Ibid., 225–30.
42
. Ibid., 249.
43
. Taylor,
Cinchona in Java
, 75.
44
. Duran-Reynals,
The Fever Bark Tree
, 212–27.
45
. For example, when a Japanese-owned cinchona operation refused to join the cartel and sold quinine at a more affordable price—to the American Red Cross and others—the Kina Bureau attacked. It threatened to hinder the company’s shipments of Java-grown bark to Tokyo, and ordered its producers to keep quinine off the market to drive the price back up. “Quinine Seized Here in
Anti-trust Drive,”
New York Times
, March 24, 1928. In 1929, as a bounty of bark threatened to depress the price of quinine, the bureau ordered cinchona plantations to be destroyed. Again, between 1934 and 1937, it restricted the export of cinchona bark from Dutch-controlled Indonesia, and banned the export of planting material, lest anyone successfully culture cinchona elsewhere. Duran-Reynals,
The Fever Bark Tree
, 212–27.
46
. “Hoover Warns World of Trade Wars,”
New York Times
, January 10, 1926.
47
. “New Move to End the Quinine Trust,”
New York Times
, March 30, 1928, 16.
48
. “Indictments out in Quinine Inquiry,”
New York Times
, March 31, 1928, 21.
49
. “Cinchona: Quinine to You,”
Fortune
, January 25, 1934 (unsigned article but presumed to be authored by Norman Taylor, according to his “Biographical Note,” at the New York Botanical Gardens Mertz Library).
50
. Ibid.
51
. Duran-Reynals,
The Fever Bark Tree
, 212–27.
52
. “Cinchona: Quinine to You.”
53
. Ibid.
54
. Patricia Barton, “Powders, Potions, and Tablets: The ‘Quinine Fraud’ in British India, 1890–1939,” in James H. Mills and Patricia Barton, eds.,
Drugs and Empires: Essays in Modern Imperialism and Intoxication, c. 1500–c. 1930
(New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 145.
55
. Ibid., 156.
56
. Ibid., 146.
57
. Ibid., 145.
58
. Sheila Zurbrigg, “Rethinking the Human Factor in Malaria Mortality: The Case of Punjab, 1868–1940,”
Parassitologia
36 (1994): 121–35.
59
. Honigsbaum,
The Fever Trail
, 87.
60
. Rocco,
The Miraculous Fever-Tree
, 107.
61
. Ackerknecht,
Malaria in the Upper Mississippi Valley, 1760–1900
, 106–13.
62
. Letter from David Livingstone to Dr. James Ormiston McWilliam, November 28, 1860, available at
www.livingstoneonline.ucl.ac.uk
.
64
. David Livingstone and John Kirk, “Original Communications: Remarks on the African Fever on the River Zambezi,” letter to the editor of the
Medical Times and Gazette
, November 12, 1859.
65
. William Garden Blaikie,
The Personal Life of David Livingstone
(London: John Murray, 1880), digital version available on Project Gutenberg, at
www.gutenberg.org/files/13262/13262-8.txt
.
66
. Curtin,
Disease and Empire
, 24, and Ackerknecht,
Malaria in the Upper Mississippi Valley, 1760–1900
, 107.
67
. Warrell and Gilles, eds.,
Essential Malariology
, 4th ed., 281.
68
. Ibid., 198.
69
. Mark Harrison,
Public Health in British India: Anglo-Indian Preventive Medicine, 1859–1914
(Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 163.
70
. F. Bruneel, B. Gachot, M. Wolff, B. Régnier, M. Danis, F. Vachon, “Resurgence of Blackwater Fever in Long-term European Expatriates in Africa: Report of 21 Cases and Review,”
Clinical Infectious Diseases
32, no. 8 (April 15, 2001), 1133–40.
71
. C. M. Wenyon, “The Incidence and Etiology of Malaria in Macedonia,”
Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps
27 (1921): 83–277.
72
. Quoted in Gordon Harrison,
Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man: A History of the Hostilities Since 1880
(New York: E. P. Dutton, 1978), 172.
73
. Snowden,
The Conquest of Malaria
, 46.
74
. Ibid., 73.
75
. Ibid., 75.
76
. Ibid., 74–75.
77
. Quoted in Greer Williams,
The Plague Killers: Untold Stories of Three Great Campaigns Against Disease
(New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1969), 146.
78
. Robert Aura Smith, “Trade Preference Sought by Leaders in Philippines,”
New York Times
, September 23, 1934.
79
. Wilson, “Quinine: Reborn in Our Hemisphere.”
80
. Rocco,
The Miraculous Fever-Tree
, 288.
81
. Mark Harrison, “Medicine and the Culture of Command: The Case of Malaria Control in the British Army During the Two World Wars,”
Medical History
40 (1996): 437–52.
82
. Duran-Reynals,
The Fever Bark Tree
, 232.
83
. Harrison, “Medicine and the Culture of Command,” 437–52.
84
. Andrew Spielman and Michael D’Antonio,
Mosquito: A Natural History of Our Most Persistent and Deadly Foe
(New York: Hyperion, 2001), 142.
85
. Wilson, “Quinine: Reborn in Our Hemisphere.”
86
. “Increase Is Seen in Malaria Fever,”
New York Times
, April 11, 1942; “Malaria Hits 100,000,000,”
New York Times
, October 18, 1942.
87
. Raymond B. Fosdick, “Malaria Control,”
The Scientific Monthly
, January 1944, 48; Harry Summers, “4 ‘Jalopy’ Planes Last Bataan Hope,”
New York Times
, April 22, 1942; Duran-Reynals,
The Fever Bark Tree
, 237–41.
88
. Fosdick, “Malaria Control,” 48.
89
. Harrison, “Medicine and the Culture of Command,” 437–52.
90
. Fosdick, “Malaria Control,” 48.
91
. “The Quinine Cartel,”
New York Times
, September 6, 1942, 6.
92
. Duran-Reynals,
The Fever Bark Tree
, 232.
93
. Williams,
The Plague Killers
, 145.
94
. John Farley,
To Cast Out Disease: A History of the International Health Division of the Rockefeller Foundation (1913–1951)
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 134.
95
. Williams,
The Plague Killers
, 147.
96
. Spielman and D’Antonio,
Mosquito
, 143.
98
. Robert J. T. Joy, “Malaria in American Troops in the South and Southwest Pacific in World War II,”
Medical History
43 (1999): 192–207.
99
. Institute of Medicine,
Saving Lives, Buying Time
, 260.
100
. Laurie Garrett,
The Coming Plague: Newly Emerging Diseases in a World Out of Balance
(New York: Penguin Books, 1994), 49.
101
. Robert S. Desowitz,
The Malaria Capers: More Tales of Parasites and People, Research and Reality
(New York: W. W. Norton, 1991), 205.
102
. Letter from Norman Taylor to Cinchona Instituut, February 2, 1947, Norman Taylor Papers Archive, New York Botanical Garden, Mertz Library, Series 2.
103
. C. P. Gilmore, “Malaria Wins Round 2,”
New York Times
, September 25, 1966.
104
. Institute of Medicine,
Saving Lives, Buying Time
, 173.
105
. Desowitz,
The Malaria Capers
, 205.
106
. Letter from Norman Taylor to Cinchona Instituut, January 11, 1946, Norman Taylor Papers Archive, New York Botanical Garden, Mertz Library, Series 2.
107
. Letter from Norman Taylor to Cinchona Instituut, April 26, 1948, Norman Taylor Papers Archive, New York Botanical Garden, Mertz Library, Series 2.
108
. Letter from Norman Taylor to Cinchona Instituut, August 10, 1948, Norman Taylor Papers Archive, New York Botanical Garden, Mertz Library, Series 2.
109
. Letter from Norman Taylor to Cinchona Instituut, January 1, 1947, Norman Taylor Papers Archive, New York Botanical Garden, Mertz Library, Series 2.
110
. A. W. Sweeney, “The Possibility of an ‘X’ Factor: The First Documented Drug Resistance of Human Malaria,”
International Journal of Parasitology
26, no. 10 (1996): 1035–61.
111
. Ibid.
112
. Jonathan D. Moreno,
Undue Risk: Secret State Experiments on Humans
(New York: W. H. Freeman and Company, 2000), 50.
113
. Sweeney, “The Possibility of an ‘X’ Factor,” 1035–61.
114
. Ibid.
115
. Ibid.
116
. Ibid.
117
. Ibid.
118
. Ibid.
119
. Ibid.
120
. Ibid.
121
. Ibid.
122
. Walther H. Wernsdorfer, “Epidemiology of Drug Resistance in Malaria,”
Acta Tropica
56 (1994): 143–56.
123
. Sweeney, “The Possibility of an ‘X’ Factor,” 1035–61.
124
. Elisabeth Rosenthal, “Outwitted by Malaria, Desperate Doctors Seek New Remedies,”
New York Times
, February 12, 1991.