The Forge of Christendom (66 page)

9
Ibid.
, p. 80.

10
Ibid.
, vol. 2, p. 371

11
Ibid.
, vol. 1, p. 283

12
Ibid.
, vol. 3, p. 130

13
Ibid.
, p. 165

14
Literally “
Loricatus
”: a man armed with a breastplate.

15
Peter Damian,
Vita Dominici Loricati
, col. 1024. This is the first known record of the phenomenon.

16
Peter Damian,
Letters
, vol. 4, p. 61

17
Lampert of Hersfeld, p. 100

18
Rather of Verona, 2.3

19
Bonizo of Sutri, p. 203

20
Peter Damian,
Letters
, vol. 4, pp. 276–7

21
Bishop Otto of Bamberg, writing at the start of the twelfth century: testimony to the enduring presumption that the world was about to end. Cited by Morris, p. 37

22
Adémar, 3.138

23
Odo of Cluny, col. 570

24
Revelation 14.5. The virgins are the same as the 144,000 harpists whom a scholar at Auxerre had independently identified with the monks of Cluny.

25
Arnulf of Milan, 3.9

26
The question of whether an unworthy priest invalidated the miracle of the Mass was an ancient one, and orthodoxy – originally articulated, inevitably, by St. Augustine – argued that it did not. Peter Damian, in his public pronouncements, at any rate, went along with this. For a convincing argument that he may have had private doubts, however, see Elliott.

27
Peter Damian,
Letters
, vol. 2, p. 319

28
Arnulf of Milan, 3.15

29
Landulf Senior, 3.29

30
Bonizo of Sutri, p. 216

31
Gregory VII,
Register
, 1.85

32
From the only surviving letter written by Henry III to Abbot Hugh:
PL
159, 932

33
Lampert of Hersfeld, p. 120

34
Bonizo of Sutri, p. 220

35
Peter Damian,
Letters
, vol. 3, p. 107

36
Jeremiah 1.10

37
Gregory VII,
Register
, 9.35

38
Ibid.
, 2.75

39
Ibid.
, 2.55a. From the so-called “
Dictatus Papae
,” “Dictation of the Pope.”

40
Abbot Walo of Metz. Quoted by Cowdrey (1998), p. 92

41
Gregory VII,
Register
, 1.49

42
Ibid.
, 2.37

43
Matthew of Edessa. Quoted by Vryonis, p. 81.

44
Michael Psellus, p. 98

45
Specifically, it was a boast of Danishmend Ghazi, a celebrated warlord who in the wake of Manzikert hacked out a princedom in the north-east of what is now Turkey. See Vryonis, p. 195

46
Matthew of Edessa. Quoted by Vryonis, p. 170

47
Gregory VII,
Register
, 1.22

48
Ibid.
, 1.23

49
Ibid.
, 2.31

50
Geoffrey of Malaterra, 1.9

51
Amatus of Monte Cassino, 2.8

52
Guiscard’s oath is reproduced in full in Loud, pp. 188–9

53
William of Apulia, p. 178

54
Ibid.
, p. 174

55
Geoffrey of Malaterra, 2.33. Even though Malaterra was writing after the First Crusade, and so may have been influenced by the ethos that surrounded it, historians generally accept that there was a strong religious dimension to how the Normans – and the papacy – viewed the conquest of Sicily. For a dissenting view, see Lopez.

56
Gregory VII,
Register
, 1.49

57
Ibid.
, 2.31

58
In fact, a supernova.

59
Vita Altmanni Episcopi Pataviensis
, p. 230. The “vulgar opinion” was prompted by the fact that in 1065 the anniversaries of Christ’s conception, the Annunciation, and his death, Good Friday, coincided. The same thing happened in only one other year in the eleventh century: 1076, the same year that Gregory was hoping to arrive in Jerusalem.

60
Gregory VII,
Register
, 2.31

61
Ibid.
, 1.77. The “Apostle” is St. Paul: 1 Corinthians 4.3

62
Bruno of Merseburg, 16

63
Lampert of Hersfeld, p. 156

64
Ibid.
, p. 150

65
Ibid.
, p. 174

66
Gregory VII,
Register
, 1.25

67
Gregory VII,
Epistolae Vagantes
, 5

68
Ibid.

69
From the fateful letter sent by the imperial bishops to Gregory from Worms:
Quellen zur Geschichte Kaiser Heinrich IV
, p. 474

70
Quoted by Cowdrey (1998), p. 117

71
Gregory VII,
Epistolae Vagantes
, 11

72
Arnulf of Milan, 4.7

73
Gregory VII,
Epistolae Vagantes
, 14

74
Henry IV, 12. From a longer version of the letter originally sent to Gregory, and disseminated for propaganda purposes.

75
Gregory VII,
Register
, 3.10a.

76
Lampert, p. 257

77
Ibid.
, p. 53

78
Henry IV, 14

79
Lampert, p. 285

80
Bruno of Merseburg, 74

81
Gregory VII,
Register
, 8.3

82
Ibid.
, 6.17

83
Ibid.
, 1.62

84
Gregory would later claim that he had not restored Henry to the kingship at Canossa, but at the time he seems to have left the matter ambiguous. Henry himself certainly believed his deposition to have been reversed.

85
Cited by Robinson (1999), p. 172

86
Paul of Bernried, 5

87
Gregory VII,
Register
, 8.10

88
Ibid.
, 2.13. From a letter to the King of Hungary.

89
Ibid.
, 4.28

90
Ibid.
, 7.23

91
Ibid.
, 7.6

92
Ibid.
, 8.21

93
Gregory VII,
Epistolae Vagantes
, 54

94
Ibid.
, 57. The letter was sent to Toirdhealbhach Ó Briain, “the illustrious king of Ireland.”

95
Gregory VII,
Register
, 8.21

96
Ibid.
, 6.5b.

97
Paul of Bernried, 107

98
Bonizo of Sutri, p. 255

99
Sigebert of Gembloux, p. 364

100
Bonizo of Sutri, pp. 248–9

101
Anna Comnena, p. 124

102
Ibid.
, p. 125

103
Ibid.
, p. 126

104
That Henry carefully withdrew from Rome before Hugh’s arrival suggests that it was he, rather than Gregory, who lay behind the abbot’s diplomatic mission. For a counter-view, see Cowdrey (1970), pp. 161–2

105
Gregory VII,
Epistolae Vagantes
, 54

106
Gregory VII,
Register
, Appendix 3

107
Sigebert of Gembloux,
An Apology against Those who Challenge the Masses of
Married Priests
. Quoted by Leyser (1965), p. 42

108
Gilo, 1.7

109
Beno, 2.2

110
With what truth it is impossible to say.

111
Guibert de Nogent,
A Monk’s Confession
, 1.11.

112
Miraculi Sancti Hugonis
. Quoted by Iogna-Prat (2002), p. 217

113
From a Cluniac charter of the late eleventh century. Quoted by Cowdrey (1970), p. 130

114
Urban II, col. 486. The bull was issued in 1097

115
The evidence that Hugh sent such letters is circumstantial, but convincing. See Cutler (1963).

116
Vita Sancti Anastasii
, 5

117
Urban II, cols. 370–1

118
The agent’s words were recorded by the King of Granada himself: unsurprisingly they appear to have made quite an impression. They are quoted by O’Callaghan, p. 30

119
Urban II, col. 288

120
Hugh of Cluny, p. 147

121
Urban II, cols. 302–3

122
Ekkehard of Aura. Quoted by Riley-Smith, p. 33. Riley-Smith’s astronomical investigations have confirmed that the celestial phenomena reported by contemporaries were authentic.

123
“Historia peregrinorum euntium Jerusolymam”:
ibid
.

124
Fulcher of Chartres, p. 56. The allusion is specifically to the papacy but in the context applies no less forcefully to Jerusalem.

125
See Delort, p. 64

126
Quoted by Cowdrey (
History
55), p. 188

127
Gerbert of Aurillac, Letter 36

128
For this estimate, see Bull (1993), p. 4

129
Robert the Monk, p. 729

130
Ralph of Caen, p. 22

131
Gesta Francorum
, p. 1

132
Matthew 24.30

133
The Latin word “
crusata
” did not come into use until the thirteenth century.

134
Anna Comnena, pp. 308–9

135
For Alexius’s self-presentation as the last emperor, see Charanis and Shepard (1997).

136
Albert of Aachen, 4.13

137
Estimates as to the precise numbers on the Crusade are inevitably hedged about by uncertainty. See Phillips, p. 6

138
Guibert de Nogent,
The Deeds of God through the Franks
, p. 225

139
Revelation 19.13–15.

Sources for medieval history tend to be much less freely availaible than their equivalents from the classical period. Not only do a majority remain untranslated, but many are accessible only in intimidating volumes of nineteenth-century scholarship. Two resources are particularly indispensable. One is the
Patrologia Latina
, an immense compendium of sermons, saints’ lives and other writings on ecclesiastical themes, gathered together in no fewer than 221 volumes by a single French priest, Jacques-Paul Migne. The other is the
Monumenta Germaniae Historica
, an even more titanic anthology of sources for the study of medieval history, begun in 1826 and ongoing to this day. Its title notwithstanding, the range of texts it embraces is far from confined to Germany. It is, however, authentically monumental.

The following abbreviations were unavoidable:

All quotations from the Bible are from the Revised Standard Version. All quotations from the Qur’an are from the translation by Abdullah Yusuf Ali (Indianapolis, 1992).

Abbo of Fleury:
Apologeticus ad Hugonem et Rodbertum Reges Francorum
, in
PL
139

Abd Allah b. Buluggin al-Ziri al-Sanhaji:
Al-Tibyan
, tr. A. T. Tibi Leiden, 1986

Adalbero of Laon:
Poème au roi Robert
, C. Carozzi Paris, 1979

Adam of Bremen:
History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen
, tr. Francis J. Tschan New York, 2002

Adémar of Chabannes:
Ademari Cabannensis Chronica
, Pascale Bourgain Turnhout, 1999

Adso of Montier-en-Der: “Letter on the Origin and Time of the Antichrist,” in
Apocalyptic Spirituality: Treatises and Letters of Lactantius, Adso of Montier-en-Der, Joachim of Fiore, The Franciscan Spirituals, Savonarola
, tr. Bernard McGinn New York, 1979

Aelfric:
Colloquy
, G. N. Garmonsway London, 1947

Aelfric:
Aelfric’s Catholic Homilies
, Malcolm Godden London, 1979

Albert of Aachen:
Historia Ierosolimitana
, Susan B. Edgington Oxford, 2007

Albert of Metz:
Fragmentum ed Deoderico primo episcopo Mettensi
, in
MGH SS
4 Hanover, 1854

Alcuin:
Letters
, in
Alcuin of York, c.
A.D.
732 to 804: His Life and Letters
, by Stephen Allott York, 1974

Amatus of Monte Cassino:
The History of the Normans
, tr. Prescott N. Dunbar Woodbridge, 2004

Andrew of Fleury:
Miraculi Sancti Benedicti
, Eugene de Certain Paris, 1858

Andrew of Fleury:
Vie de Gauzlin, Abbé de Fleury
, Robert-Henri Bautier Paris, 1969

Angilbertus:
Karolus Magnus et Leo Papa
, in
MGH Poetae Latini aevi Karolini
1 Berlin, 1881

Anna Comnena:
The Alexiad
, tr. E. R. A. Sewter London, 2003

Annales Hildesheimenses
, in
MGH SRG
8 Hanover, 1878

Annales Quedlinburgenses
, in
MGH SS
3 Hanover, 1839

Annals of Ulster
, tr. Seán Mac Airt and Gearóid Mac Niocail Dublin, 1983

Archives d’Anjou
, Paul Marchegay, 3 Angers, 1843–56

Ari Thorgilsson:
Book of the Icelanders
, Halldór Hermannsson Ithaca, 1930

Arnold of Regensburg:
Vita S. Emmerami
, in
MGH SS
4 Hanover, 1841

Arnulf of Milan:
Liber Gestorum Recentium
, in
MGH SRG
67 Hanover, 1994

Augustine:
City of God
, tr. Henry Bettenson London, 2003

Augustine:
On Order
, tr. Silvano Borruso South Bend, 2006

Avitus of Vienne:
Epistulae
, in
MGH AA
6.2 Berlin, 1888

Battle of Maldon
, in
EHD

Beno:
Benonis et Aliorum Cardinalium Schismaticorum Contra Gregorium VII. et Urbanum II. Scripta
, in
MGH Libelli
2 Hanover, 1892

Bibliotheca Cluniacensis
, Martinus Marrier and Andreas Quercetanus Mâcon, 1915

Blickling Homilies
, tr. Richard J. Kelly London, 2003

Bonizo of Sutri:
To a Friend
, in
The Papal Reform of the Eleventh Century
, tr. and I. S. Robinson Manchester, 2004

Bruno of Merseburg:
Saxonicum Bellum
, in
MGH Deutsches Mittelalter
2 Leipzig, 1937

Bruno of Querfort:
Passio Sancti Adalberti
, in
MGH SS
4 Hanover, 1841

Bruno of Querfort:
Vita Quinque Fratrum
, in
MGH SS
15 Hanover, 1887

Byrhtferth:
Byrhtferth’s Manual
, tr. and S. J. Crawford London, 1929

Carmen de Hastingae Proelio
, in Morillo, 46–52

Cartulaire de l’Abbaye de Saint-Aubin d’Angers
, B. de Broussillon, 2 Paris, 1903

Cartulaire du Ronceray
, Paul Marchegay Angers, 1856

Charlemagne:
Epistolae
, in
MGH Epistolae Karolini Aevi
Berlin, 1892–1925

Chronicon Mosomense
:
Chronique ou Livre de Fondation du Monastère de Mouzon
, tr. and Michel Bur Paris, 1989

Chronicon Novaliciense
, in
MGH SS
7 Hanover, 1846

Collectanea Byzantina II
, S. G. Mercati Bari, 1970

Constantine VII Porphyrogenitos:
De Administrando Imperio
, tr. R. J. H. Jenkins Dumbarton Oaks, 1967

Corpus Scriptorum Muzarabicorum
, J. Gil, 2 Madrid, 1973

Desiderius of Monte Cassino:
Dialogi de Miraculis Sancti Benedicti
, in
MGH SS
30/2 Leipzig, 1934

Documents pour l’Histoire de l’Église de Saint-Hilaire de Poitiers (768–1300)
, L. Rédet Poitiers, 1847

Donation of Constantine
, Ernest F. Henderson, in Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages London, 1910 319–29

Dudo of Saint-Quentin:
History of the Normans
, tr. Eric Christiansen Woodbridge, 1998

Egil’s Saga
, tr. C. Fell and J. Lucas London, 1975

Einhard:
The Life of Charlemagne
, in
Two Lives of Charlemagne
, tr. Lewis Thorpe London, 1969

Encomium Emmae Reginae
, tr. Alistair Campbell Cambridge, 1998

Erchempert:
Historia Langabardorum Beneventarnorum
(
http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/erchempert.html
)

Eucherius of Lyon:
The Passion of the Martyrs
Van Berchem, 55–9

Eusebius:
Eusebius’ Life of Constantine
, tr. Averil Cameron and Stuart G. Hall Oxford, 1999

Eusebius:
In Praise of the Emperor Constantine
(
http://www.ucalgary.ca/∼vandersp/Courses/texts/eusebius/euseprai.html
)

Ex Miraculis Sancit Alexii
, in
MGH SS
4 Hanover, 1841

Flodoard:
Annales
, Philippe Lauer Paris, 1905

Fontes ad Topographiam Veteris Urbis Romae Pertinentes, VIII, Regio Urbis X, Mons Palatinus
, G. Lugli Rome, 1960

Fulbert of Chartres:
The Letters & Poems of Fulbert of Chartres
, F. Behrends Oxford, 1976

Fulcher of Chartres:
The First Crusade: The Chronicle of Fulcher of Chartres and Other Sources
, Edward Peters Philadelphia, 1998

Gallus Anonymus:
The Deeds of the Princes of the Poles
, tr. Paul W. Knoll and Frank Shaer Budapest, 2003

Geoffrey of Malaterra:
De Rebus Gestis Rogerii Calabriae et Siciliae Comitis et Roberti Guiscardi Fratris Eius
, E. Pontieri Bologna, 1927

Gerbert of Aurillac:
Acta Concilii Remensis ad Sanctum Basolum
, in
MGH SS
3 Hanover, 1838

Gerbert of Aurillac:
The Letters of Gerbert with his Papal Privileges as Sylvester II
, tr. Harriet Pratt Lattin New York, 1961

Gesta Consulum Andegavorum
:
Chroniques des Comtes d’Anjou et des Seigneurs d’Amboise
, L. Halphen and R. Poupardin Paris, 1913

Gilo:
Vita Sancti Hugonis Abbatis
, H. E. J. Cowdrey, in Studi Gregoriani 11, 1978

Glaber, Rodulfus:
Opera
, John France, Neithard Bulst and Paul Reynolds Oxford, 1989

Gregory I:
Homiliarum in Evengelia
, in
PL
76

Gregory I:
Moralium Libri
, in
PL
75

Gregory I:
Regulae Pastoralis Liber
, in
PL
77

Gregory VII:
The “Epistolae Vagantes” of Pope Gregory VII
, tr. H. E. J. Cowdrey Oxford, 1972

Gregory VII:
The Register of Pope Gregory VII 1073–1085
, tr. H. E. J. Cowdrey Oxford, 2002

Guibert de Nogent:
A Monk’s Confession: The Memoirs of Guibert of Nogent
, tr. Paul J. Archambault Philadelphia, 1995

Guibert de Nogent:
The Deeds of God through the Franks: A Translation of Guibert de Nogent’s Gesta Dei per Francos
, tr. R. Levine Woodbridge, 1996

Hariulf:
Gesta Ecclesiae Centulensis
, in
Chronique de l’Abbaye de Saint-Riquier
, F. Lot Paris, 1894

Heliand
:
The Heliand: The Saxon Gospel
, tr. G. Ronald Murphy Oxford, 1992

Henry II, in
MGH Diplomata Regum et Imperatorum Germaniae
3 H. Bresslau, H. Bloch and R. Holtzmann Hanover, 1900–3

Henry IV:
Die Briefe Heinrichs IV
, in
MGH Deutsches Mittlealter
1 Leipzig, 1937

Henry of Huntingdon:
The History of the English People 1000–1154
, tr. Diana Greenway Oxford, 1996

Hermann of Reichenau:
Chronicon de Sex Aetatibus Mundi
, in
MGH SS
5 Hanover, 1844

Hildebert:
Vita Sancti Hugonis
, in
PL
159, cols. 857–94

Hrotsvit of Gandersheim:
Pelagia
, in
Opera Omnia
, Walter Berschin Munich, 2001

Hugh of Cluny:
Two Studies in Cluniac History 1049–1126
, H. E. J. Cowdrey Rome, 1978

Ibn Hazm:
The Ring of the Dove: A Treatise on the Art and Practice of Arab Love
, tr. A. J. Arberry London, 1997

Inventio et Miracula Sancti Vulfranni
, Dom J. Laporte Rouen, 1938

Itinera Hierosolymitana et Descriptiones Terrae Sanctae
, T. Tobler and A. Molinier Osnabrück, 1966

John Canaparius:
Vita Sancti Adalberti
, in
MGH SS
4 Hanover, 1841

John the Deacon:
Chronicon Venetum
, G. Monticolo Rome, 1890

John of Fécamp:
Epistola ad Leonem IX
, in
PL
143, cols. 797–800

John of St. Arnoul:
La Vie de Jean, Abbé de Gorze
, Michel Parisse Paris, 1999

John of Salerno:
St. Odo of Cluny: Being the Life of St. Odo of Cluny by John of Salerno and the Life of St. Gerald of Aurillac by St. Odo
, tr. G. Sitwell London, 1958

John Skylitzes:
Synopsis Historiarum
, I. Thurn Berlin, 1973

Jordanes:
The Gothic History of Jordanes
, tr. Charles C. Mierow Princeton, 1915

Lactantius:
De Mortibus Persecutorum
, J. L. Creed Oxford, 1984

Lampert of Hersfeld:
Annales
, in
MGH SRG
38 Hanover, 1894

Landulf Senior:
Historia Mediolanensis
, in
MGH SS
8 Hanover, 1848

Laxdaela Saga
, tr. Magnus Magnusson and Hermann Palsson London, 1969

Leo VI:
Tactica
, in
PG
107, cols. 419–1094

Leo of Synada:
The Correspondence of Leo, Metropolitan of Synada & Syncellus
, M. P. Vinson Washington, DC, 1985

Leo the Deacon:
The History of Leo the Deacon: Byzantine Military Expansion in the Tenth Century
, tr. Alice-Mary Talbot Dennis F. Sullivan Washington, DC, 2005

Lex Salica
, in
MGH Leges Nationum Germanicarum
4/2 Hanover, 1969

Liber Miraculorum Sancte Fidis
, A. Bouillet Paris, 1897

Liber Tramitis Aevi Odilonis Abbatis
, P. Dinter Siegburg, 1980

Life of King Edward who Rests at Westminster
, tr. F. Barlow Oxford, 1992

Life of Pope Leo IX
, in
The Papal Reform of the Eleventh Century
, tr. and I. S. Robinson Manchester, 2004

Liudprand of Cremona:
Antapodosis
and
History of Otto
, in
The Works of Liudprand of Cremona
, tr. F. A. Wright London, 1930

Liudprand of Cremona:
Relatio de Legatione Constantinopolitana (The Mission to Constantinople)
, Brian Scott Bristol, 1993

Leo of Vercelli: “Panegyric on Otto III,” in
Kaiser, Rom und Renovatio
, by P. E. Schramm, pp. 62–4

Louis IV:
Recueil des Actes de Louis IV, Roi de France (936–954)
, P. Lauer Paris, 1914

Michael Psellus:
Fourteen Byzantine Rulers
, tr. E. R. A. Sewter London, 1966

Milo Crispin:
Vita Beati Lanfranci Cantuariensium Archiepiscopi
, in
PL
150, cols. 53–4

Odo of Cluny:
Collationes
, in
PL
133

Orderic Vitalis:
The Ecclesiastical History of Orderic Vitalis
, tr. Marjorie Chibnall, 6 Oxford, 1968–80