The Theory and Practice of Group Psychotherapy (118 page)

100
Fuhriman and Butler, “Curative Factors in Group Therapy.”

101
Kivlighan and Mullison, “Participants’ Perception of Therapeutic Factors.”

102
Kivlighan and Goldfine, “Endorsement of Therapeutic Factors.”

103
J. Schwartz and M. Waldo, “Therapeutic Factors in Spouse-Abuse Group Treatment,”
Journal for Specialists in Group Work
24 (1999): 197–207.

104
Mushet et al., “In-patients’ Views of the Helpful Aspects.”

105
Yalom et al., “Curative Factors in Group Therapy.”

106
Lieberman, Yalom, and Miles,
Encounter Groups.

107
Butler and Fuhriman, “Level of Functioning and Length of Time in Treatment.”

108
Leszcz et al., “The Value of Inpatient Group Psychotherapy.”

109
Encounter group “high learners” valued vicarious learning: they had the ability to learn from the work of others (Lieberman, Yalom, and Miles,
Encounter Groups
). Clients who are dominant interpersonally discount interpersonal feedback and altruism and are less open to group influence, and clients who are overly responsible appear to discount cohesion and value altruism, suggesting that they feel burdened by others’ needs yet compelled to help (R. MacNair-Semands and K. Lese, “Interpersonal Problem and the Perception of Therapeutic Factors in Group Therapy,”
Small Group Research
31 [2002]: 158–79). High self/other acceptors tended to value deeper insight into their interpersonal relations and into their family structure, whereas low self/other acceptors placed more value on universality and advice/guidance from members and leaders. Highly affiliative students in time-limited counseling groups gained more through self-understanding, whereas the nonaffiliative members benefited more from interpersonal learning, self-disclosure, and altruism (Kivlighan and Mullison, “Participants’ Perception of Therapeutic Factors”; Kivlighan and Goldfine, “Endorsement of Therapeutic Factors”).

CHAPTER 5

1
T. Postmes, R. Spears, S. Cihangir, “Quality of Decision Making and Group Norms.”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
80(2001): 918–30.

2
D. Shapiro and L. Birk, “Group Therapy in Experimental Perspective,”
International Journal of Group Psychotherapy
17 (1967): 211–24.

3
E. Coche, R. Dies, and K. Goettelman, “Process Variables Mediating Change in Intensive Group Therapy Training,”
International Journal of Group Psychotherapy
41 (1991): 379–97.

4
D. Kivlighan, J. Tarrant, “Does Group Climate Mediate the Group Leadership–Group Member Outcome Relationship? A Test of Yalom’s Hypothesis About Leadership Priorities,”
Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice
3 (2001): 220–34.

5
D. Strassberg, H. Roback, K. Anchor, S. Abramowitz, “Self-Disclosure in Group Therapy with Schizophrenics,”
Archives of General Psychiatry
32 (1975): 1259–61.

6
Shapiro and Birk, “Group Therapy in Experimental Perspective.” See also R. Nye,
The Legacy of B. F. Skinner
(Pacific Grove, Calif.: Brooks Cole, 1992).

7
I. Goldfarb, “A Behavioral Analytic Interpretation of the Therapeutic Relationship,”
Psychological Record
42 (1992): 341–54. R. Kohlenberg, “Functional Analytic Psychotherapy,” in
Psychotherapists in Clinical Practice: Cognitive and Behavioral Perspectives,
ed. N. Jacobson (New York: Guilford Press, 1987), 388–443. D. Powell, “Spontaneous Insights and the Process of Behavior Therapy: Cases in Support of Integrative Psychotherapy,”
Psychiatric Annals
18 (1988): 288–94.

8
R. Heckel, S. Wiggins, and H. Salzberg, “Conditioning Against Silences in Group Therapy,”
Journal of Clinical Psychology
18 (1962): 216–17.

9
M. Dinoff et al., “Conditioning the Verbal Behavior of a Psychiatric Population in a Group Therapy–Like Situation,”
Journal of Clinical Psychology
16 (1960): 371–72.

10
G. Burlingame, A. Fuhriman, and J. Johnson, “Cohesion in Group Psychotherapy,” in
A Guide to Psychotherapy Relationships That Work
, ed. J. Norcross (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2002).

11
A. Bandura, “Modelling Approaches to the Modification of Phobic Disorders,” presented at the Ciba Foundation Symposium, “The Role of Learning in Psychotherapy,” London, May 1968. A. Bandura, J. Grusec, and F. Menlove, “Vicarious Extinction of Avoidance Behavior,”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
5 (1967): 16–23.

12
A. Bandura, D. Ross, and J. Ross, “Imitation of Film Mediated Aggressive Models,”
Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology
66 (1963): 3–11.

13
J. McCullough,
Treatment for Chronic Depression: Cognitive Behavioral Analysis System of Psychotherapy
(CBASP) (New York: Guilford Press, 2000).

14
D. Morran, R. Stockton, J. Cline, and C. Teed, “Facilitating Feedback Exchange in Groups: Leader Interventions,”
Journal for Specialists in Group Work
23 (1998): 257–60.

15
A. Schwartz and H. Hawkins, “Patient Models and Affect Statements in Group Therapy,” presented at the American Psychological Association Meetings, Chicago, September 1965.

16
A. Goldstein et al., “The Use of Planted Patients in Group Psychotherapy,”
American Journal of Psychotherapy
21 (1967): 767–74.

17
L. Murphy, M. Leszcz, A. Collings, and J. Salvendy, “The Experience of the Neophyte Group Therapist,”
International Journal of Group Psychotherapy
, 46 (1996): 543–52.

18
I. Yalom,
The Schopenhauer Cure
(New York: HarperCollins, 2005), 213.

19
I. Yalom,
Existential Psychotherapy
(New York: Basic Books, 1980), 178–87.

20
I. Yalom,
The Schopenhauer Cure
(New York: HarperCollins, 2005), 214–20.

21
S. Gold-Steinberg and M. Buttenheim, “‘Telling One’s Story’ in an Incest Survivors Group,”
International Journal of Group Psychotherapy
43 (1993): 173–89.

CHAPTER 6

1
L. Mangione and R. Forti, “The Use of the Here and Now in Short-Term Group Psychotherapy,” in
Innovation in Clinical Practice: A Source Book
, ed. L. VandeCreeke and T. Jackson (Sarasota: Professional Resources Press, 2001), 241–56.

2
R. Dies, “Models of Group Therapy: Sifting Through Confusion,”
International Journal of Group Psychotherapy
42 (1992): 1–17.

3
J. Flowers and C. Booraem, “The Effects of Different Types of Interpretation on Outcome in Group Therapy,”
Group
14 (1990): 81–88. This small (N = 24 clients), intensive study also indicated that here-and-now interpretations that focused on patterns of behavior were most effective in producing positive outcomes, followed by interpretations of impact of behavior on others, and then by historical interpretations. Interpretations of motivation were often countertherapeutic.

4
N. Brown, “Conceptualizing process,”
International Journal of Group Psychotherapy
53 (2003): 225–47. M. Ettin, “From Identified Patient to Identifiable Group: The Alchemy of the Group as a Whole,”
International Journal of Group Psychotherapy
50 (2000): 137–62.

5
M. Miles, “On Naming the Here-and-Now,” unpublished essay, Columbia University, 1970.

6
B. Cohen, M. Ettin, and J. Fidler, “Conceptions of Leadership: The ‘Analytic Stance’ of the Group Psychotherapist,”
Group Dynamics: Theory, Research and Practice
2 (1998): 118–31.

7
Y. Agazarian, “Contemporary Theories of Group Psychotherapy: A Systems Approach,”
International Journal of Group Psychotherapy
42 (1992): 177–202.

8
D. Morran, R. Stockton, J. Cline, C. Teed, “Facilitating Feedback Exchange in Groups: Leader Interventions,”
Journal for Specialists in Group Work
23 (1998): 257–60.

9
J. McCullough,
Treatment for Chronic Depression: Cognitive Behavioral Analysis System of Psychotherapy (CBASP)
(New York: Guilford Press, 2000). S. Knox, S. Hess, D. Petersen, and C. Hill, “A Qualitative Analysis of Client Perceptions of the Effects of Helpful Therapist Self-Disclosure in Long-Term Therapy,”
Journal of Counseling Psychology
44 (1997): 274–83. M. Barrett and J. Berman, “Is Psychotherapy More Effective When Therapists Disclose Information About Themselves?”
Journal of Consulting Clinical Psychology
69 (2001): 597–603.

10
M. Lieberman, I. Yalom, and M. Miles,
Encounter Groups: First Facts
(New York: Basic Books, 1973). Group research offers corroborative evidence. In one group project, the activating techniques (structured exercises) of sixteen different leaders were studied and correlated with outcome. There were two important relevant findings: (1) the more structured exercises the leader used, the
more competent
did members (at the end of the thirty-hour group)
deem the leader to be;
(2) the more structured exercises used by the leader, the
less
positive were the results (measured at a six-month follow-up). In other words, members desire leaders who lead, who offer considerable structure and guidance. They equate a large number of structured exercises with competence. Yet this is a confusion of form and substance: having too much structure or too many activating techniques is counterproductive.

11
L. Ormont, “The Leader’s Role in Resolving Resistances to Intimacy in the Group Setting,”
International Journal of Group Psychotherapy
38 (1988): 29–47.

12
D. Kiesler, “Therapist Countertransference: In Search of Common Themes and Empirical Referents,”
Journal of Clinical Psychology/In Session
57 (2001): 1023–63.

13
D. Marcus and W. Holahan, “Interpersonal Perception in Group Therapy: A Social Relations Analysis,”
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
62 (1994): 776–82.

14
G. Brown and G. Burlingame, “Pushing the Quality Envelope: A New Outcome Management System,”
Psychiatric Services
52 (2001): 925–34.

15
M. Leszcz, “Geriatric Group Therapy,” in
Comprehensive Textbook of Geriatric Psychiatry
, 3rd ed., ed. J. Sadavoy, L. Jarvik, G. Grossberg, and B. Myers (New York: Norton, 2004), 1023–54.

16
Kiesler “Therapist Countertransference.”

17
S. Foulkes and E. Anthony,
Group Psychotherapy: The Psychoanalytic Approach,
2nd ed. (Baltimore: Penguin, 1965), 153.

18
Ormont, “The Leader’s Role in Resolving Resistances.”

19
D. Martin, J. Garske, and M. Davis, “Relation of the Therapeutic Alliance with Outcome and Other Variables: A Meta-Analytic Review,”
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
68 (2000): 438–50.

20
D. Kiesler,
Contemporary Interpersonal Theory and Research
(New York: Wiley, 1996). McCullough,
Treatment for Chronic Depression.
J. Muran and J. Safran, “A Relational Approach to Psychotherapy,” in
Comprehensive Handbook of Psychotherapy,
ed. F. Kaslow, vol. 1,
Psychodynamic/Object Relations,
ed. J. Magnavita (New York: Wiley, 2002), 253–81. S. Stuart and M. Robertson,
Interpersonal Psychotherapy: A Clinical Guide
(London: Arnold Press, 2003).

21
L. Murphy, M. Leszcz, A. Collings, and J. Salvendy, “The Experience of the Neophyte Group Therapist,”
International Journal of Group Psychotherapy
46 (1996): 543–52.

22
Interpreting motivations tends to be unhelpful. Flowers and Booraem have demonstrated that here-and-now comments (about patterns of behavior or impact of behavior) were positively correlated with group therapy outcome, whereas motivational interpretations were correlated with negative outcome (Flowers and Booraem, “The Effects of Different Types of Interpretation”).

23
M. Keller et al. “A Comparison of Nefazodone, Cognitive Behavioral-Analysis System of Psychotherapy, and Their Combination for the Treatment of Chronic Depression,”
New England Journal of Medicine
342 (2000): 1462–70.

24
O. Rank,
Will Therapy and Truth and Reality
(New York: Knopf, 1950). R. May,
Love and Will
(New York: Norton, 1969). S. Arieti,
The Will to Be Human
(New York: Quadrangle Books, 1972). L. Farber,
The Ways of the Will
(New York: Basic Books, 1966). A. Wheelis, “Will and Psychoanalysis,”
Journal of the Psychoanalytic Association
4 (1956): 285–303. I. Yalom,
Existential Psychotherapy
(New York: Basic Books, 1980).

25
Yalom,
Existential Psychotherapy,
286–350.

26
Farber,
Ways of the Will
.

27
Psychological treatments for addictions and eating disorders have particularly benefited from an appreciation of the role of the client’s will in the process of change. Several research teams have employed five stages of motivation and then match therapy interventions to the client’s stage of motivation or “change readiness.” The five stages are:

1. The precontemplation stage (no recognition that a problem exists)

2. The contemplation stage (some recognition of the problem but with ambivalence about doing something about it)

3. The preparation stage (a desire to change but a lack of knowledge about how to do so)

4. The action stage (actual behavioral shifts)