The Wizards of Langley (53 page)

59
. Bissell with Lewis and Pudlo,
Reflections of a Cold Warrior
, p. 78; Pedlow and Welzenbach,
The
Central Intelligence Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance
, pp. 15–16, 30.

60
. Peter Wyden,
The Bay of Pigs: The Untold Story
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1979), p. 13.

61
. Ibid., pp. 12–13.

62
. Bissell with Lewis and Pudlo,
Reflections of a Cold Warrior
, pp. 98, 105.

63
. Ben R. Rich and Leo Janos,
Skunk Works: A Personal Memoir of My Years at Lockheed
(Boston: Little, Brown, 1994), p. 130.

64
. Pedlow and Welzenbach,
The Central Intelligence Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance
, p. 66.

65
. Ibid., p. 60; Jonathan E. Lewis, “Tension and Triumph: Civilian and Military Relations and the Birth of the U-2 Program,” in Robert A. McDonald (ed.),
CORONA: Between the Sun and the Earth:
The First NRO Reconnaissance Eye in Space
(Bethesda, Md.: American Society for Photogramme-try and Remote Sensing, 1997), pp. 13–23 at p. 13. Eisenhower was certainly aware that the Air Force had, for a number of years, been conducting electronic and photographic reconnaissance flights that entered Soviet airspace. But it was expected that the U-2s would fly far deeper into the Soviet Union than the military planes—to reach key missile and nuclear targets that the military flights could not be expected to reach.

66
. Pedlow and Welzenbach,
The Central Intelligence Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance
, pp. 94–95, 100; Pocock,
Dragon Lady
, p. 25; William E. Burrows, “That New Black Magic,”
Air and
Space
, December 1998/January 1999, pp. 29–35.

67
. Pedlow and Welzenbach,
The Central Intelligence Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance
, pp. 101, 104.

68
. Pocock,
Dragon Lady
, p. 27; Pedlow and Welzenbach,
The Central Intelligence Agency and
Overhead Reconnaissance
, pp. 104–105.

69
. Pedlow and Welzenbach,
The Central Intelligence Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance
, p. 105; Pocock,
Dragon Lady
, p. 27.

70
. Pocock,
Dragon Lady
, p. 28.

71
. “Soviet Note No. 23,” July 10, 1956, White House Corr., Gen. 1956(3), Box 3, John Foster Dulles Papers, White House Memoranda, DDEL; Pedlow and Welzenbach,
The Central Intelligence
Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance
, p. 109.

72
. Herbert I. Miller, Memorandum for: Project Director, Subject: Suggestions re Intelligence Value of AQUATONE, July 17, 1956, 2000 CIA Release, NARA.

73
. Pedlow and Welzenbach,
The Central Intelligence Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance
, pp. 111, 124.

74
. Jay Miller,
Lockheed U-2
(Austin, Tex.: Aerofax, 1983), pp. 27, 30; Pedlow and Welzenbach,
The
Central Intelligence Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance
, pp. 135, 139.

75
. Pedlow and Welzenbach,
The Central Intelligence Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance
, pp. 135, 139, 143; Henry S. Lowenhaupt, “Mission to Birch Woods,”
Studies in Intelligence
12, 4 (Fall 1968): 1–12 at 3.

76
. Pedlow and Welzenbach,
The Central Intelligence Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance
, p. 143.

77
. Ibid., p. 165.

78
. Ibid., p. 168; CIA, “Situation Estimate for Project CHALICE, Fiscal Years 1961 and 1962,” March 14, 1960, 2000 CIA Release, NARA.

79
. Pedlow and Welzenbach,
The Central Intelligence Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance,
p. 168.

80
. Ibid., pp. 174–176; Chris Pocock,
The U-2 Spyplane: Toward the Unknown
(Atglen, Pa.: Schiffer Books, 2000), p. 165; interview with a former CIA official.

81
. Evan Thomas,
The Very Best Men
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995), p. 218; Pedlow and Welzenbach,
The Central Intelligence Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance
, p. 176; Transcript, “Debriefing of Francis Gary Powers, Tape #2,” February 13, 1962, NARA, RG 263, 1998 CIA Release, Box 230, Folder 3.

82
. “Testimony of Allen Dulles,”
Executive Sessions of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee
(Historical Series), Vol. XII, Eighty-sixth Congress–Second Session, 1960
(Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1982), p. 285.

83
. Ibid.

84
. Seymour M. Hersh,
The Samson Option: Israel’s Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy
(New York: Random House, 1991), p. 52.

85
. Pedlow and Welzenbach,
The Central Intelligence Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance
, p. 215; Memorandum for: Director of Central Intelligence, Subject: Identification of Special Projects, August 13, 1958, NARA, RG 263, 1998 CIA Release, Box 42, Folder 5.

86
. Central Intelligence Agency, “Future of the Agency’s U-2 Capability,” July 7, 1960, pp. 4, 10; Miller,
Lockheed U-2
, p. 31; Richard M. Bissell Jr., Deputy Director (Plans), Memorandum for: All Members U.S. Government IDEALIST Community, January 4, 1961, 2000 CIA Release, NARA.

87
. Wayne Mutza,
Lockheed P2V Neptune: An Illustrated History
(Atglen, Pa.: Schiffer Military/ Aviation History, 1996), pp. 109–110; “Lockheed RB-69A ‘Neptune,’”
www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/research/bombers/b5/b5-62.htm
, July 28, 1999.

88
. Mutza,
Lockheed P2V Neptune
, pp. 110, 112–113.

89
. Ibid., p. 113; Jay Miller,
Skunk Works: The Official History
(North Branch, Minn.: Specialty Press, 1996), p. 58.

90
. Frederic C.E. Oder, James C. Fitzpatrick, and Paul E. Worthman,
The CORONA Story
(Washington, D.C.: National Reconnaissance Office, 1997), p. 123; interview with Albert D. Wheelon, Montecito, California, November 11–12, 1998; interview with John McMahon, Los Altos, California, November 17, 1998; Mutza,
Lockheed P2V Neptune
, pp. 113–114; Miller,
Skunk Works
, p. 58.

91
. Pedlow and Welzenbach,
The CIA and Overhead Reconnaissance
, p. 260; Thomas P. McIn-inch, “The OXCART Story,”
Studies in Intelligence
15, 1 (Winter 1971): 1–34 at 2.

92
. McIninch, “The OXCART Story,” p. 3.

93
. Pedlow and Welzenbach,
The Central Intelligence Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance
, pp. 262–263; John L. Sloop,
Liquid Hydrogen as a Propulsion Fuel
(Washington, D.C.: NASA, 1978), pp. 141–167.

94
. Pedlow and Welzenbach,
The Central Intelligence Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance
, p. 263; McIninch, “The OXCART Story,” p. 3.

95
. McIninch, “The OXCART Story,” p. 3; Pedlow and Welzenbach,
The Central Intelligence
Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance
, pp. 263, 267.

96
. Pedlow and Welzenbach,
The Central Intelligence Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance
, pp. 268–269.

97
. Ibid., pp. 270–271, 273; McIninch, “The OXCART Story,” p. 3.

98
. Pedlow and Welzenbach,
The Central Intelligence Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance
, p. 273; Rich and Janos,
Skunk Works
, p. 200.

99
. Pedlow and Welzenbach,
The Central Intelligence Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance
, p. 274.

100
. Ibid., pp. 274, 278.

101
. Brig. Gen. A. J. Goodpaster, Memorandum for the Record, June 2, 1960, Dwight D. Eisenhower Papers, White House Office: Office of Staff Secretary, Subject Series, alpha sub, b.15, F: “Intel Matters (15),” DDEL.

102
. Oder, Fitzpatrick, and Worthman,
The CORONA Story
, p. 18.

103
. Jeffrey T. Richelson,
America’s Secret Eyes in Space: The U.S. KEYHOLE Spy Satellite Program
(New York: Harper & Row, 1990), p. 27; Bissell with Lewis and Pudlo,
Reflections of a Cold
Warrior
, p. 135.

104
. Oder, Fitzpatrick, and Worthman,
The CORONA Story
, pp. 10, 15.

105
. Kenneth E. Greer, “Corona,”
Studies in Intelligence
, Supplement, 17 (Spring 1973), reprinted in Kevin C. Ruffner (ed.),
CORONA: America’s First Satellite Program
(Washington, D.C.: Central Intelligence Agency, 1995), pp. 3–39 at p. 5; Hall, “Postwar Strategic Reconnaissance and the Genesis of Corona,” p. 113.

106
. Central Intelligence Agency/National Reconnaissance Office, “CORONA Pioneers,” May 25, 1995; interview with Frank Buzard, Rancho Palos Verdes, California, June 11, 1999; Dwayne A. Day, “Development and Improvement of the Corona Satellite,” in Day, Logsdon, and Latell (eds.),
Eye in the Sky
, pp. 48–85 at p. 49; Robert A. McDonald, “Corona’s Pioneers,” in McDonald (ed.).,
CORONA
, pp. 141–152 at p. 145.

107
. Robert A. McDonald, “CORONA: A Success for Space Reconnaissance, a Look into the Cold War, and a Revolution for Intelligence,”
Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing
51, 6 (June 1995): 689–720 at 693; Central Intelligence Agency/National Reconnaissance Office, “CORONA Pioneers.”

108
. Dwayne A. Day, “The Development and Improvement of the Corona Satellite,” in Day, Logs-don, and Latell (eds.),
Eye in the Sky
, pp. 48–85, at p. 50.

109
. Buzard interview.

110
. Albert D. Wheelon, “CORONA: A Triumph of American Technology,” in Day, Logsdon, and Latell (eds.),
Eye in the Sky
, pp. 29–47 at pp. 34–35; Greer, “Corona,” pp. 7–8; Bissell with Lewis and Pudlo,
Reflections of a Cold Warrior
, p. 136.

111
. Jonathan McDowell, “Launch Listings,” in Day, Logsdon, and Latell (eds.),
Eye in the Sky
, pp. 235–246 at p. 236; Day, “The Development and Improvement of the Corona Satellite,” p. 49.

112
. Day, “The Development and Improvement of the CORONA Satellite,” p. 55.

113
. Greer, “Corona,” at pp. 16–21; McDowell, “Launch Listings,” p. 236; Leonard Mosley,
Dulles: A Biography of Eleanor, Allen, and John Foster and Their Family Network
(New York: Dial Press, 1978), p. 432.

114
. “The Origin and Evolution of the Corona System,” in Day, Logsdon, and Latell (eds.),
Eye in
the Sky
, pp. 181–199 at p. 199.

115
. Buzard interview.

116
. Richelson,
America’s Secret Eyes in Space
, p. 40; Greer, “Corona,” pp. 3, 22, 24; Dwayne A. Day, John Logsdon, and Brian Latell, “Introduction,” in Day, Logsdon, and Latell (eds.),
Eye in the
Sky
, pp. 1–18 at p. 10.

117
. Interview with a former CIA official.

118
. Ibid.

119
. J. Michael Selander, “Image Coverage Models for Declassified Corona, Argon, and Lanyard Satellite Photography: A Technical Explanation,” in McDonald (ed.),
CORONA
, pp. 177–188, at p. 177; Greer, “Corona,” p. 24; Photographic Interpretation Center, Central Intelligence Agency,
Joint Mission Coverage Index, Mission 9009, 18 August 1960
, September 1960, pp. 115–125 in Ruffner (ed.),
CORONA
, p. 120.

120
. Greer, “Corona,” p. 24; McDonald (ed.),
CORONA
, p. 718.

121
. McDonald (ed.),
CORONA
, pp. 698–700, 715, 718.

122
. Director of Central Intelligence, NIE 11-4-57, “Main Trends in Soviet Capabilities and Policies, 1957–1962,” November 12, 1957, pp. 26–27; Lawrence C. McQuade, Memorandum for Mr. Nitze, Subject: But Where Did the Missile Gap Go? (Washington, D.C.: Assistant Secretary of Defense, International Security Affairs, May 31, 1963), pp. 7–8.

123
. Director of Central Intelligence, NIE 11-4-59,
Main Trends in Soviet Capabilities and Policies,
1959–1964
, February 9, 1960, pp. 51–52.

124
. Desmond Ball,
Politics and Force Levels: The Strategic Missile Program of the Kennedy Administration
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), pp. 10, 15–25, 96.

125
. Director of Central Intelligence, NIE 11-4-60, “Main Trends in Soviet Capabilities and Policies, 1960–1965,” December 1, 1960, p. 52.

126
. Director of Central Intelligence, NIE 11-8-61,
Soviet Capabilities for Long-Range Attack
, June 7, 1961, in Donald P. Steury,
Intentions and Capabilities: Estimates on Soviet Strategic Forces,
1950–1983
(Washington, D.C.: Central Intelligence Agency, 1996), pp. 115–119 at pp. 116–117.

127
. Jerrold L. Schechter and Peter S. Deriabin,
The Spy Who Saved the World: How a Soviet Colonel
Changed the Course of the Cold War
(New York: Scribner’s, 1992), pp. 273–274; Director of Central Intelligence, NIE 11-8/1-61,
Soviet Capabilities for Long-Range Attack
, September 21, 1961, p. 4.

128
. Director of Central Intelligence, NIE 11-8/1-61,
Soviet Capabilities for Long-Range Attack
, pp. 2, 10–11, 13.