The Years of Extermination: Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1939-1945 (110 page)

158. Polonsky and Davies,
Jews in Eastern Poland
, p. 28.

159. Frank,
Diensttagebuch
, p. 199:

160. Polonsky and Davies,
Jews in Eastern Poland
, p. 28.

161. Robert C. Tucker,
Stalin in Power: The Revolution from Above, 1928–1941
(New York, 1992), pp. 606–07.

162. The Karski report of February 1940 was first published in David Engel, “An Early Account of Polish Jewry under Nazi and Soviet Occupation Presented to the Polish Government-in-Exile, February 1940,”
Jewish Social Studies
45 (1983), pp. 1–16.

163. Ibid., p. 12.

164. Ibid., pp. 12–13. Karski’s comments on the German use of anti-Semitism as a way of gaining support among the Polish population were also confirmed by reports reaching the Foreign Office in London throughout 1940. See Bernard Wasserstein, “Polish Influences on British Policy Regarding Jewish Rescue Efforts in Poland 1939–1945,”
Polin: Studies in Polish Jewry
11 (1998), particularly p. 189.

165. Engel, “Early Account,” p. 11.

166. Gross, “A Tangled Web,” pp. 103–4.

167. For the attitude of the Polish government-in-exile and Knoll’s threats, see David Engel,
In the Shadow of Auschwitz: The Polish Government-in-Exile and the Jews, 1939–1942
(Chapel Hill, NC, 1987), pp. 62ff., particularly 64–65.

168. At the beginning of the war the Jewish population of the “Old Reich” included approximately 190,000 “full Jews”; according to the census of May 1939 there were also 46,928 “half-Jews” and 32,669 “quarter-Jews” living in Germany. Cf. Ino Arndt and Heinz Boberach, “Deutsches Reich,” in
Dimension des Völkermords: Die Zahl der jüdischen Opfer des Nationalsozialismus
, ed. Wolfgang Benz, vol. 33,
Quellen und Darstellungen zur Zeitgeschichte
(Munich, 1991), p. 34. In annexed Austria, the “full Jewish” population at the beginning of the war was 66,260 persons (belonging to the Jewish community) and 8,359 (not belonging to the community). Cf. Jonny Moser in Wolfgang Benz, ed.,
Dimension des Völkermords: Die Zahl der jüdischen Opfer des Nationalsozialismus
. (Munich, 1991), p. 69 n. 13.

169. Joseph Walk, ed.,
Das Sonderrecht für die Juden im NS-Staat: Eine Sammlung der gesetzlichen Massnahmen und Richtlinien, Inhalt und Bedeutung
. (Heidelberg, 1981), p. 303.

170. Ibid., p. 305.

171. Marion A. Kaplan,
Between Dignity and Despair: Jewish Life in Nazi Germany
(New York, 1998), p. 146.

172. Walk,
Das Sonderrecht
, p. 304.

173. Otto Dov Kulka and Eberhard Jäckel,
Die Juden in den geheimen NS-Stimmungsberichten 1933–1945
(Düsseldorf, 2004), p. 408.

174. Ibid. The shopping time for Jews changed from place to place but was usually limited to a maximum of two hours.

175. Pätzold,
Verfolgung
, p. 235.

176. Walk,
Das Sonderrecht
, p. 306.

177. Ibid., p. 308.

178. Ibid., p. 310.

179. For the issues raised by the initial order see Paul Sauer, ed.,
Dokumente über die Verfolgung der jüdischen Bürger in Baden-Württemberg durch das nationalsozialistische Regime 1933–1945
, vol. 2 (Stuttgart, 1966), pp. 179ff.

180. Ibid., p. 181.

181. Ibid., p. 184.

182. Walk,
Das Sonderrecht
, p. 309.

183. Ibid., p. 312.

184. Ibid., p. 314.

185. Pätzold,
Verfolgung
, p. 250.

186. Walk,
Das Sonderrecht
, p. 307.

187. Heinz Boberach, ed.,
Meldungen aus dem Reich, 1938–1945: Die geheimen Lageberichte des Sicherheitsdienstes der SS
, vol. 4 (Herrsching, 1984), p. 979.

188. Walk,
Das Sonderrecht
, p. 318.

189. For Kirk’s cable of February 28, 1940, see John Mendelsohn and Donald S. Detwiler, eds.,
The Holocaust: Selected Documents in Eighteen Volumes
(New York: Garland Publishing, 1982), pp. 120ff.

190. For some of these phantasmal representations, see Patricia Szobar, “Telling Sexual Stories in the Nazi Courts of Law: Race Defilement in Germany, 1933–1945,”
Journal of the History of Sexuality
11, nos. 1–2 (2002), pp. 131–63.

191. Jochen Klepper,
Unter dem Schatten Deiner Flügel: Aus den Tagebüchern der Jahre 1932–1942
, ed. Hildegard Klepper (Stuttgart, 1956), p. 822.

192. Bryan Mark Rigg,
Hitler’s Jewish Soldiers: The Untold Story of Nazi Racial Laws and Men of Jewish Descent in the German Military
(Lawrence, 2002), pp. 113–14.

193. Helmut Heiber,
Reichsführer! Briefe an und von Himmler
(Munich, 1970), p. 75.

194. Ibid., p. 76.

195.
Akten der Parteikanzlei der NSDAP
, vol. 2, part 3, abstract No. 33179.

196. Ringelblum,
Notes,
p. 181.

197. Kulka and Jäckel,
Die Juden in den geheimen NS-Stimmungsberichten 1933–1945
, p. 412.

198. Ibid., pp. 407–08.

199. Ibid., p. 411.

200. Boberach,
Meldungen
, vol. 3, p. 541.

201. Kulka and Jäckel,
Die Juden in den geheimen NS-Stimmungsberichten 1933–1945
, p. 427.

202. Boberach,
Meldungen
. Vol. 4, pp. 1317ff.

203. John Connelly, “The Use of Volksgemeinschaft: Letters to the NSDAP Kreisleitung Eisenach 1939–1940,”
Journal of Modern History
68, no. 4 (1996): pp. 924–25.

204. Klemperer,
I Will Bear Witness
, vol. 1, p. 335.

205. Sauer,
Dokumente über die Verfolgung
, vol. 2, p. 186.

206. See in particular the diary and documents in Helmuth Groscurth,
Tagebücher eines Abwehroffiziers 1938–1940: Mit weiteren Dokumenten zur Militäropposition gegen Hitler
, ed. Helmut Krausnick and Harold C. Deutsch (Stuttgart, 1970).

207. Ulrich von Hassell,
Die Hassell-Tagebücher 1938–1944: Aufzeichnungen vom Andern Deutschland
, ed. Klaus Peter Reiss (unter Mitarbeit) and Freiherr Friedrich Hiller von Gaertringen (Berlin, 1988), p. 167.

208. Ibid., p. 168.

209. Joachim C. Fest,
Plotting Hitler’s Death: The Story of the German Resistance
(New York, 1996), p. 150.

210. On this issue see Hans Mommsen, “Der Widerstand gegen Hitler und die nationalsozialistische Judenverfolgung,” in
Alternative zu Hitler: Studien zur Geschichte des deutschen Widerstandes
(Munich, 2000), pp. 388ff.

211. About the percentage of church members, see John S. Conway,
The Nazi Persecution of the Churches, 1933–45
(New York, 1968), p. 232. Two-thirds of all baptized members of Christian churches in Germany were Protestants, and one third were Catholics. These numbers are mentioned in Doris L. Bergen, “Catholics, Protestants, and Christian Antisemitism in Nazi Germany,” in David Cesarani, ed.,
Holocaust: Critical Concepts in Historical Studies
. 6 vols. (New York: Routledge, 2004), vol. 1, p. 342.

212. On the “German Christians,” see in particular Doris L. Bergen,
Twisted Cross: The German Christian Movement in the Third Reich
(Chapel Hill, N.C., 1996).

213. For these attitudes see in particular
infra
, chapter V, of this book.

214. For this text, see Röhm and Thierfelder,
Juden
, vol. 3, part 2 (1938–1941), pp. 27–28.

215. For this text see Susannah Heschel,
Transforming Jesus from Jew to Aryan: Protestant Theologians in Nazi Germany
(Tucson, 1995), p. 4.

216. Susannah Heschel, “Deutsche Theologen für Hitler. Walter Grundmann und das Eisenacher Institut zur Erforschung und Beseitigung des Jüdischen Einflusses auf das deutsche kirchliche Leben,” in
“Beseitigung des jüdischen Einflusses—”: Antisemitische
Forschung, Eliten und Karrieren im Nationalsozialismus
, ed. Fritz Bauer Institut,
Jahrbuch 1998/99 zur Geschichte und Wirkung des Holocaust
(Frankfurt am Main, 1999), p. 151.

217. Ibid., p. 153.

218. Quoted in Röhm and Thierfelder,
Juden
, vol. 3, part 2, p. 106.

219. Heinz Boberach, ed.,
Berichte des SD und der Gestapo über Kirchen und Kirchenvolk in Deutschland 1934–1944
. (Mainz, 1971), p. 365.

220. Ibid., p. 376.

221. Ibid., p. 406.

222. For manifestations of this traditional Catholic anti-Semitism during the thirties see Friedländer,
Nazi Germany and the Jews,
vol. 1, pp. 42–60.

223. For details on this controversy see Guenter Lewy,
The Catholic Church and Nazi Germany
(New York, 1964), pp. 278–79.

224. Lewy,
The Catholic Church and Nazi Germany
, p. 283. The Paulus Bund was essentially open to Jewish converts who were in line with the “new Germany” (ibid.); it later allowed the SD to find at least one notorious informant among its members. See Wolfgang Benz,
Patriot und Paria: Das Leben des Erwin Goldmann zwischen Judentum und Nationalsozialismus: eine Dokumentation
(Berlin, 1997).

225. Ibid.

226. For the relations between Bertram and Preysing, see Klaus Schölder,
A Requiem for Hitler: And Other New Perspectives on the German Church Struggle
(London, 1989), pp. 157ff.

227. For the transition from Reichsvertretung to Reichsvereinigung see Otto Dov Kulka, “The Reichsvereinigung and the Fate of German Jews, 1938/9–1943,” in Arnold Paucker, ed.,
Die Juden im Nationalsozialistichen Deutschland
(Tübingen, 1986), pp. 353ff.

228. See Friedländer,
Nazi Germany and the Jews,
vol. 1, p. 284.

229. For the relations between the Reichsvereinigung and the Berlin community see, among others, Beate Meyer, “Gratwanderung zwischen Verantwortung und Verstrickung—Die Reichsvereinigung der Juden in Deutschland und die jüdische Gemeinde zu Berlin 1938–1945,” in Beate Meyer and Hermann Simon, eds
Juden in Berlin, 1938–1945
(Berlin, 2000), pp. 291ff.

230. Wolf Gruner, “Public Welfare and the German Jews under National Socialism,” in
Probing the Depths of German Antisemitism: German Society and the Persecution of the Jews, 1933–1941
, ed. David Bankier (New York, 2000), pp. 78ff.

231. On these issues see Wolf Gruner, “Poverty and Persecution: The Reichsvereinigung, the Jewish Population, and Anti-Jewish Policy in the Nazi State, 1939–1945,”
Yad Vashem Studies
27 (1999), pp. 23ff.

232. Salomon Adler-Rudel,
Jüdische Selbsthilfe unter dem Naziregime 1933–1939, im Spiegel der Berichte der Reichsvertretung der Juden in Deutschland
(Tübingen, 1974), pp. 31–33.

233. Yfaat Weiss, “The ‘Emigration Effort’ or ‘Repatriation,’” in
Probing the Depths of German Antisemitism: German Society and the Persecution of the Jews, 1933–1941
, ed. David Bankier (New York, 2000), pp. 367–68; See also Arnold Paucker and Konrad Kwiet, “Jewish Leadership and Jewish Resistance,” in
Probing the Depths of German
Antisemitism: German Society and the Persecution of the Jews, 1933–1941
, ed. David Bankier (New York, 2000), p. 379.

234. Paucker and Kwiet, “Jewish Leadership and Jewish Resistance,” p. 379.

235. Klemperer,
I Will Bear Witness
, p. 321.

236. See mainly Raul Hilberg and Stanislaw Staron, introduction to Czerniaków,
Warsaw Diary
, pp. 29–30.

237. Ibid., p. 27.

238. Ibid., p. 144.

239. Ibid., p. 152.

240. Apolinary Hartglas, “How Did Czerniaków Become Head of the Warsaw Judenrat?”
Yad Vashem Bulletin
15 (1964), pp. 4–7.

241. Philip Friedman,
Roads to Extinction: Essays on the Holocaust
, ed. Ada June Friedman (New York, 1980), p. 336.

242. Czerniaków,
Warsaw Diary
, p. 191.

243. Ringelblum,
Notes
, pp. 47–48.

244. For Szulman’s diary and his remarks on Rumkowski, see Robert Moses Shapiro, “Diaries and Memoirs from the Lodz Ghetto in Yiddish and Hebrew,” in
Holocaust Chronicles: Individualizing the Holocaust through Diaries and Other Contemporaneous Personal Accounts
, ed. Robert Moses Shapiro (Hoboken, NJ, 1999), pp. 195ff.

245. Israel Gutman, “Debate,” in
Patterns of Jewish Leadership in Nazi Europe, 1933–1945
, ed. Cynthia J. Haft and Yisrael Gutman (Jerusalem, 1979), p. 186.

246. About Kaplan’s life, see Abraham I. Katsh’s introduction to Kaplan’s
Diary
, pp. 9–17.

247. The details of Ringelblum’s life are taken from Jacob Sloan’s introduction to Ringelblum’s
Notes
and from a recent analysis: Samuel David Kassow, “Vilna and Warsaw, Two Ghetto Diaries: Herman Kruk and Emanuel Ringelblum,” in
Holocaust Chronicles: Individualizing the Holocaust through Diaries and Other Contemporaneous Personal Accounts
, ed. Robert Moses Shapiro (Hoboken, 1999), pp. 171ff.

Chapter 2: May 1940–December 1940

1. Otto Dov Kulka and Eberhard Jäckel,
Die Juden in den geheimen NS-Stimmungsberichten 1933–1945
(Düsseldorf, 2004), p. 439.

2. Paul Sauer, ed.,
Dokumente über die Verfolgung der jüdischen Bürger in Baden-Württemberg durch das nationalsozialistische Regime 1933–1945,
vol. 2, (Stuttgart, 1966), p. 240.

3. Ibid., p. 257.

4. Goldman’s letter is reproduced in Abraham J. Peck, ed.,
Archives of the Holocaust
, vol. 8 (New York: 1990), pp. 76ff.

5. See most recently Ian Kershaw,
Hitler, 1936–45: Nemesis
(New York, 2000), pp. 294ff. and 296.

6. For this “antimaterialist” dimension see in particular Zeev Sternhell,
La Droite Révolutionnaire 1885–1914: Les Origines françaises du fascisme
(Paris, 1978); Zeev Sternhell,
Neither Right nor Left: Fascist Ideology in France
(Berkeley, 1986).