Thinking, Fast and Slow (55 page)

sweet tooth
: Baba Shiv and Alexander Fedorikhin, “Heart and Mind in Conflict: The Interplay of Affect and Cognition in Consumer Decision Making,”
Journal of Consumer Research
26 (1999): 278–92. Malte Friese, Wilhelm Hofmann, and Michaela Wänke, “When Impulses Take Over: Moderated Predictive Validity of Implicit and Explicit Attitude Measures in Predicting Food Choice and Consumption Behaviour,”
British Journal of Social Psychology
47 (2008): 397–419.

cognitively busy: Daniel T. Gilbert, “How Mental Systems Believe,”
American Psychologist
46 (1991): 107–19. C. Neil Macrae and Galen V. Bodenhausen, “Social Cognition: Thinking Categorically about Others,”
Annual Review of Psychology
51 (2000): 93–120.

po {"><21;
: Sian L. Beilock and Thomas H. Carr, “When High-Powered People Fail: Working Memory and Choking Under Pressure in Math,”
Psychological Science
16 (2005): 101–105.

exertion of self-control
: Martin S. Hagger et al., “Ego Depletion and the Strength Model of Self-Control: A Meta-Analysis,”
Psychological Bulletin
136 (2010): 495–525.

resist the effects of ego depletion
: Mark Muraven and Elisaveta Slessareva, “Mechanisms of Self-Control Failure: Motivation and Limited Resources,”
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
29 (2003): 894–906. Mark Muraven, Dianne M. Tice, and Roy F. Baumeister, “Self-Control as a Limited Resource: Regulatory Depletion Patterns,”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
74 (1998): 774–89.

more than a mere metaphor
: Matthew T. Gailliot et al., “Self-Control Relies on Glucose as a Limited Energy Source: Willpower Is More Than a Metaphor,”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
92 (2007): 325–36. Matthew T. Gailliot and Roy F. Baumeister, “The Physiology of Willpower: Linking Blood Glucose to Self-Control,”
Personality and Social Psychology Review
11 (2007): 303–27.

ego depletion
: Gailliot, “Self-Control Relies on Glucose as a Limited Energy Source.”

depletion effects in judgment
: Shai Danziger, Jonathan Levav, and Liora Avnaim-Pesso, “Extraneous Factors in Judicial Decisions,”
PNAS
108 (2011): 6889–92.

intuitive—incorrect—answer
: Shane Frederick, “Cognitive Reflection and Decision Making,”
Journal of Economic Perspectives
19 (2005): 25–42.

syllogism as valid
: This systematic error is known as the belief bias. Evans, “Dual-Processing Accounts of Reasoning, Judgment, and Social Cognition.”

call them more rational
: Keith E. Stanovich,
Rationality and the Reflective Mind
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2011).

cruel dilemma
: Walter Mischel and Ebbe B. Ebbesen, “Attention in Delay of Gratification,”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
16 (1970): 329–37.

“There were no toys…distress”
: Inge-Marie Eigsti et al., “Predicting Cognitive Control from Preschool to Late Adolescence and Young Adulthood,”
Psychological Science
17 (2006): 478–84.

higher scores on tests of intelligence
: Mischel and Ebbesen, “Attention in Delay of Gratification.” Walter Mischel, “Processes in Delay of Gratification,” in
Advances in Experimental Social Psychology
, Vol. 7, ed. Leonard Berkowitz (San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1974), 249–92. Walter Mischel, Yuichi Shoda, and Monica L. Rodriguez, “Delay of Gratification in Children,”
Science
244 (1989): 933–38. Eigsti, “Predicting Cognitive Control from Preschool to Late Adolescence.”

improvement was maintained
: M. Rosario Rued { Rocenca et al., “Training, Maturation, and Genetic Influences on the Development of Executive Attention,”
PNAS
102 (2005): 14931–36.

conventional measures of intelligence
: Maggie E. Toplak, Richard F. West, and Keith E. Stanovich, “The Cognitive Reflection Test as a Predictor of Performance on Heuristics-and-Biases Tasks,”
Memory & Cognition
(in press).

4: The Associative Machine

Associative Machine
: Carey K. Morewedge and Daniel Kahneman, “Associative Processes in Intuitive Judgment,”
Trends in Cognitive Sciences
14 (2010): 435–40.

beyond your control
: To avoid confusion, I did not mention in the text that the pupil also dilated. The pupil dilates both during emotional arousal and when arousal accompanies intellectual effort.

think with your body
: Paula M. Niedenthal, “Embodying Emotion,”
Science
316 (2007): 1002–1005.

WASH primes SOAP
: The image is drawn from the working of a pump. The first few draws on a pump do not bring up any liquid, but they enable subsequent draws to be effective.

“finds he it yellow instantly”
: John A. Bargh, Mark Chen, and Lara Burrows, “Automaticity of Social Behavior: Direct Effects of Trait Construct and Stereotype Activation on Action,”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
71 (1996): 230–44.

words related to old age
: Thomas Mussweiler, “Doing Is for Thinking! Stereotype Activation by Stereotypic Movements,”
Psychological Science
17 (2006): 17–21.

The Far Side: Fritz Strack, Leonard L. Martin, and Sabine Stepper, “Inhibiting and Facilitating Conditions of the Human Smile: A Nonobtrusive Test of the Facial Feedback Hypothesis,”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
54 (1988): 768–77.

upsetting pictures
: Ulf Dimberg, Monika Thunberg, and Sara Grunedal, “Facial Reactions to Emotional Stimuli: Automatically Controlled Emotional Responses,”
Cognition and Emotion
16 (2002): 449–71.

listen to messages
: Gary L. Wells and Richard E. Petty, “The Effects of Overt Head Movements on Persuasion: Compatibility and Incompatibility of Responses,”
Basic and Applied Social Psychology
1 (1980): 219–30.

increase the funding of schools
: Jonah Berger, Marc Meredith, and S. Christian Wheeler, “Contextual Priming: Where People Vote Affects How They Vote,”
PNAS
105 (2008): 8846–49.

Reminders of money
: Kathleen D. Vohs, “The Psychological Consequences of Money,”
Science
314 (2006): 1154–56.

appeal of authoritarian ideas
: Jeff Greenberg et al., “Evidence for Terror Management Theory II: The Effect of Mortality Salience on Reactions to Those Who Threaten or Bolster the Cultural Worldview,”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
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“Lady Macbeth effect”
: Chen-Bo Zhong and Katie Liljenquist, “Washing Away Your Sins: Threatened Morality and Physical Cleansing,”
Science
313 (2006): 1451–52.

preferred mouthwash over soap
: Spike Lee and Norbert Schwarz, “Dirty Hands and Dirty Mouths: Embodiment of the Moral-Purity Metaphor Is Specific to the Motor Modality Involved in Moral Transgression,”
Psychological Science
21 (2010): 1423–25.

at a British university
: Melissa Bateson, Daniel Nettle, and Gilbert Roberts, “Cues of Being Watched Enhance Cooperation in a Real-World Setting,”
Biology Letters
2 (2006): 412–14.

introduced to that stranger
: Timothy Wilson’s
Strangers to Ourselves
(Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2002) presents a concept of an “adaptive unconscious” that is similar to System 1.

5: Cognitive Ease

“Easy” and “Strained”
: The technical term for cognitive ease is
fluency
.

diverse inputs and outputs
: Adam L. Alter and Daniel M. Oppenheimer, “Uniting the Tribes of Fluency to Form a Metacognitive Nation,”
Personality and Social Psychology Review
13 (2009): 219–35.

“Becoming Famous Overnight”
: Larry L. Jacoby, Colleen Kelley, Judith Brown, and Jennifer Jasechko, “Becoming Famous Overnight: Limits on the Ability to Avoid Unconscious Influences of the Past,”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
56 (1989): 326–38.

nicely stated the problem
: Bruce W. A. Whittlesea, Larry L. Jacoby, and Krista Girard, “Illusions of Immediate Memory: Evidence of an Attributional Basis for Feelings of Familiarity and Perceptual Quality,”
Journal of Memory and Language
29 (1990): 716–32.

The impression of familiarity
: Normally, when you meet a friend you can immediately place and name him; you often know where you met him last, what he was wearing, and what you said to each other. The feeling of familiarity becomes relevant only when such specific memories are not available. It is a fallback. Although its reliability is imperfect, the fallback is much better than nothing. It is the sense of familiarity that protects you from the embarrassment of being (and acting) astonished when you are greeted as an old friend by someone who only looks vaguely familiar.

“body temperature of a chicken”
: Ian Begg, Victoria Armour, and Thérèse Kerr, “On Believing What We Remember,”
Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science
17 (1985): 199–214.

low credibility
: Daniel M. Oppenheimer, “Consequences of Erudite Vernacular Utilized Irrespective of Necessity: Problems with Using Long Words Needlessly,”
Applied Cognitive Psychology
20 (2006): 139–56.

when they rhymed
: Matthew S. Mc Glone and Jessica Tofighbakhsh, “Birds of a Feather Flock Conjointly (?): Rhyme as Reas {Rhy
Psychological Science
11 (2000): 424–28.

fictitious Turkish companies
: Anuj K. Shah and Daniel M. Oppenheimer, “Easy Does It: The Role of Fluency in Cue Weighting,”
Judgment and Decision Making Journal
2 (2007): 371–79.

engaged and analytic mode
: Adam L. Alter, Daniel M. Oppenheimer, Nicholas Epley, and Rebecca Eyre, “Overcoming Intuition: Metacognitive Difficulty Activates Analytic Reasoning,”
Journal of Experimental Psychology—General
136 (2007): 569–76.

pictures of objects
: Piotr Winkielman and John T. Cacioppo, “Mind at Ease Puts a Smile on the Face: Psychophysiological Evidence That Processing Facilitation Increases Positive Affect,”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
81 (2001): 989–1000.

small advantage
: Adam L. Alter and Daniel M. Oppenheimer, “Predicting Short-Term Stock Fluctuations by Using Processing Fluency,”
PNAS
103 (2006). Michael J. Cooper, Orlin Dimitrov, and P. Raghavendra Rau, “A
Rose.com
by Any Other Name,”
Journal of Finance
56 (2001): 2371–88.

clunky labels
: Pascal Pensa, “Nomen Est Omen: How Company Names Influence Shortand Long-Run Stock Market Performance,”
Social Science Research Network Working Paper
, September 2006.

mere exposure effect: Robert B. Zajonc, “Attitudinal Effects of Mere Exposure,”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
9 (1968): 1–27.

favorite experiments
: Robert B. Zajonc and D. W. Rajecki, “Exposure and Affect: A Field Experiment,”
Psychonomic Science
17 (1969): 216–17.

never consciously sees
: Jennifer L. Monahan, Sheila T. Murphy, and Robert B. Zajonc, “Subliminal Mere Exposure: Specific, General, and Diffuse Effects,”
Psychological Science
11 (2000): 462–66.

inhabiting the shell
: D. W. Rajecki, “Effects of Prenatal Exposure to Auditory or Visual Stimulation on Postnatal Distress Vocalizations in Chicks,”
Behavioral Biology
11 (1974): 525–36.

“The consequences…social stability”
: Robert B. Zajonc, “Mere Exposure: A Gateway to the Subliminal,”
Current Directions in Psychological Science
10 (2001): 227.

triad of words
: Annette Bolte, Thomas Goschke, and Julius Kuhl, “Emotion and Intuition: Effects of Positive and Negative Mood on Implicit Judgments of Semantic Coherence,”
Psychological Science
14 (2003): 416–21.

association is retrieved
: The analysis excludes all cases in which the subject actually found the correct solution. It shows that even subjects who will ultimately fail to find a common association have some idea of whether there is one to be found.