America's Greatest 19th Century Presidents (4 page)

Chapter 2: Revolutionary Acitivities, 1774-1782

First Continental Congress

In response to the Coercive Acts, delegates from 12 colonies met in Philadelphia. The 56 men, who had been chosen by their colonial legislatures, met to craft a united response to what they called the Intolerable Acts, debating the merits of a boycott of British trade, and declaring their rights and demanding redress.

During the First Continental Congress in 1774, Jefferson was not a delegate, but did offer advice and instructions to the Virginia delegation.  Jefferson's
A Summary View on the Rights of British Americans
was critical in informing the Congress.  The First Continental Congress eventually petitioned the British government to end the Intolerable Acts, while also determining to convene again the following summer. Little did they know that the Revolutionary War would start by then. 

Second Continental Congress

The petitions of the First Continental Congress had no effect on King George III or Parliament in 1774, and the Second Continental Congress would convene in June 1775. But by then, colonists in Massachusetts took things into their own hands. The First Continental Congress had convened for barely more than 6 months, but the Second Continental Congress would end up lasting for nearly 6 years.

After the shot heard round the world at the Battle of Lexington on April 19, 1775, the colonies sent representatives to the Second Continental Congress. During their initial meetings, some delegates at the Second Continental Congress were still considering ways the colonies might reconcile with the British Empire, but when the colonial militia forces laying siege to Boston won the Battle of Bunker Hill on June 17, the delegates were determined to cast off what they perceived to be British tyranny.

At the Second Continental Congress, Jefferson had switched spots with his cousin, Peyton Randolph, who returned to Virginia to overlook the Virginia House of Burgesses. With the Revolution now in full-swing, Jefferson's philosophical advocacy expanded.  In 1775, he published
Notes on the State of Virginia,
where Jefferson further advanced the views of natural rights discussed in
A Summary View
and also discussed the virtues of agrarianism over industrialism.  This would prove to be a dominant theme throughout Jefferson's political life, and one that would lead to sectional divides in America during the 19
^th
century. .

The Declaration of Independence

Trumbull’s famous painting of the Committee of Five presenting a draft of the Declaration

Jefferson's crowning achievement at the Second Continental Congress was, of course, his authorship of the Declaration of Independence. At age 33, Jefferson was the youngest delegate at the Second Continental Congress, and just like his time in the House of Burgesses, Jefferson spoke infrequently in Congress. In fact, though it may be hard to believe from reading Jefferson’s writings, Jefferson was said to be a poor public speaker. While this would badly damage politicians today, the absence of media made this merely a minor blip for Jefferson's political career.

It goes without saying that Jefferson shined with his writing.  The Congress selected five men to draft a document explaining to the British government why the colonies desired independence.  Among the men selected were John Adams, Roger Sherman, Benjamin Franklin, Robert Livingston and Thomas Jefferson.  Within this group, everyone agreed that Jefferson's writing skills made him the ideal candidate to draft the Declaration of Independence.

Writing the Declaration proved to be a defining moment in Jefferson's life, and it is his most well-known accomplishment.  As a document, the Declaration justified the call for independence by listing grievances against the King and anchoring them with natural and legal rights, which formed the most memorable lines in the document. In addition to summarizing Jefferson's political philosophy, the Declaration was an amalgamation of the words and thoughts of famous political philosophers of the previous century, including Montesquieu and John Locke. Regardless, Jefferson is now remembered as the author of one of the English language’s most timeless passages, “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.”

Throughout June of 1776, Jefferson worked in Philadelphia within short walking distance of the Congress, writing the first rough draft of the Declaration of Independence.  In substance, it mostly resembled the final document, with an emphasis on natural rights and self-government.  Throughout the editing process, it was reduced by nearly a quarter, by removing sentences and eliminated redundancies. 

Among the most controversial articles was a statement that blamed the existence of slavery on the British crown.  It read as follows:

“He has waged cruel war against human nature itself, violating its most sacred rights of life and liberty in the persons of a distant people who never offended him, captivating & carrying them into slavery in another hemisphere or to incur miserable death in their transportation thither.  This piratical warfare, the opprobrium of infidel powers, is the warfare of the Christian King of Great Britain.  Determined to keep open a market where Men should be bought & sold, he has prostituted his negative for suppressing every legislative attempt to prohibit or restrain this execrable commerce.”
[1]

This passage ignited outrage among the Congressional delegates.  Southerners who supported slavery thought the language too strong.  Northern merchants who profited from the slave trade agreed.  The general sentiment also held that the passage would alienate moderate Britons from supporting the Revolution.  Ultimately, the passage was voted down, and replaced with a more moderate line about the King's ignition of “war among us.”

Once the document was complete, Congress assembled to debate whether to officially adopt the document and declare independence.  After a few days of debate, Congress officially accepted the document on July 4
^th
, 1776, and the United States of America officially declared independence.

Virginia Government

Despite the legacy enshrined by his writing of the Declaration of Independence, Jefferson's primary interests throughout his time in the Second Continental Congress remained in Virginia, not Philadelphia. In September of 1776, Jefferson returned to Virginia to serve in the Revolutionary government's House of Delegates.  There, he promoted land ownership, freedom of religion and the abolition of primogeniture, which allowed first born sons to inherit the entire estate of his father.  And the Declaration of Independence wasn’t the only important document Jefferson drafted while serving in the Continental Congress. He also spent substantial time drafting a constitution for the State of Virginia. 

Despite his very “blue blooded” upbringing, Jefferson's constitution staunchly opposed aristocracy and came out in strong support of agricultural interests.  For example, his original constitution included a provision giving every adult male 50 acres of land.  Though much of his advocacy was of little effect, Jefferson's time in the House of Delegates offered great insight into part of his philosophy: the centrality of land ownership to self-governance. 

On slavery, Jefferson also made progress as a Delegate.  Though he’s remembered today for the seeming contradiction between his words and his lifestyle, Jefferson proposed and passed a law banning the slave trade in Virginia in 1778, making it the state the first to do so.

Just a year later, at the young age of 36, Jefferson was elected Governor of Virginia by the two houses of the state legislature. Jefferson’s election came at a precarious time, as the British had just shifted their military focus from the northern colonies to campaigns in the southern colonies. As a wartime governor, much of Jefferson's two terms would be dominated by arming and assisting militias in fending off British forces around the state.  Jefferson, however, proved to be an ineffective governor, and his tenure was marked with impatience. Moreover, the Virginia Constitution awarded more power to the Legislature than the Governor, and despite his contribution to its drafting, Jefferson was unhappy with the limits on his influence. Perhaps worst of all, Jefferson was a bit skittish amid war: when Richmond, the state capitol, was attacked, Jefferson fled and took no measures to defend the city.

Chapter 3: Early American Government, 1783-1788

Return to the Continental Congress

In October of 1781, the British surrendered to the Patriots in Yorktown, and although nobody knew for certain at the time, it marked the end of hostilities. Over the next two years, the British, French, and Americans began to negotiate the contours of a peace agreement. Benjamin Franklin, who had secured French entry into the war after the Battle of Saratoga, headed a negotiating team with John Adams and John Jay that had to tread the line between placating both the British and French. Eventually the
Treaty of Paris
was signed on September 3, 1783, and ratified by the Continental Congress on January 14, 1784. The American Revolution had ended with independence won. 

In the meantime, the task of governing a new nation was firmly in the hands of the Continental Congress, which had been managing the war effort on a national level since 1775.  Jefferson was not re-elected to the Governorship of Virginia in 1781, and instead was selected as a Delegate to the Continental Congress beginning in 1783. Jefferson only served a year in the Continental Congress, but it was a memorable one. Having already stirred controversy with his proposed passage in the Declaration, he stirred more controversy over slavery by advocating the total prohibition of slavery anywhere in the United States.  The measure failed by only one vote.

Minister in France

Despite his miserable term as Governor and his relatively insignificant time in Congress, Jefferson's political career had barely just begun.  In 1784, Benjamin Franklin retired from his position as Minister to France and returned to the new nation, eventually helping write the Constitution in 1787. At George Washington's urging, Jefferson succeeded Franklin as the new nation's Minister to France.

George Washington

In France, Jefferson found much more success than he had as governor.  He was fluent in French (and four other languages), and he arrived in Europe already possessing a solid reputation as an intellectual.

Despite this reputation, Jefferson immediately faced something of an uphill battle in the realm of diplomacy.  Many European powers – though not so much France – considered the United States a rebellious power that was doomed to ultimately fail.  Many thought its economic reliance on Great Britain meant it could not continue to operate without being politically aligned with Great Britain. For its part, the French were upset with what they felt to be American double-crossing during the negotiations behind the Treaty of Paris, having bankrolled the American Revolution to such an extent that it was practically bankrupted.

During his time in Paris, Jefferson needed to work closely with diplomats stationed in other countries to help build a unified, consistent image of the new United States.  He developed a particularly strong relationship with John Adams, who was serving the country diplomatically in much less friendly territory – Great Britain. The two had worked together on the Declaration of Independence, beginning an intimate and turbulent relationship that spanned 50 years. During the 1780s, the two forged a friendship and corresponded continually throughout their times abroad, up until the two became bitter political rivals in the 1790s.