Dreams and Shadows: The Future of the Middle East (67 page)

CHAPTER SIX: SYRIA: THE OUTLAWS

1.
Patrick Seale,
Asad: The Struggle for the Middle East
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), p. 153.

2.
Patrick Seale,
Asad,
pp. 3–8.

3.
Gary C. Gambill, “Riyad al-Turk: Secretary-General of the Syrian Community Party Political Bureau,”
Middle East Intelligence Bulletin,
vol. 3, no. 9, Sept. 2001; and Ranwa Yehia, “The Shackles of Leadership,”
Al-Ahram Weekly,
no. 563, Dec. 6–12, 2001.

4.
Patrick Seale,
Asad,
pp. 441–460.

5.
Michael Jansen, “Spring Time in Syria,”
Al-Ahram Weekly,
no. 526, March 22–28, 2001.

6.
Inaugural Address, Syrian Arab News Agency, July 17, 2000.

7.
“Statement by 99 Syrian Intellectuals,”
Al Hayat,
Sept. 27, 2000.

8.
Eli Karmelli, and Yotam Feldner, “The Battle for Reforms and Civil Society in Syria—Part I,” Middle East Media Research Institute, no. 47, Feb. 9, 2001.

9.
Flynt Leverett,
Inheriting Syria: Bashar’s Trial by Fire
(Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2005).

10.
Deborah Amos, “Syria’s Efforts to Reform Its Economy,”
All Things Considered,
National Public Radio, Aug. 2, 2005.

11.
Sami Moubayed, “Dateline Damascus: Threatened by Its Neighbors, Damascus Clamps Down on ‘Opinion of the Other,’”
Washington Report on Middle East Affairs,
Dec. 2001.

12.
Rhonda Roumani, “Syria Frees Five Political Activists,”
The Washington Post,
Jan. 19, 2006.

13.
Patrick Seale,
Asad,
pp. 3–8.

14.
Yassin Haj Saleh, “Don’t Rush the Revolution,”
The New York Times,
June 4, 2005.

15.
Howard Schneider, “For First Time, a Pope Sets Foot in a Mosque,”
The Washington Post,
May 7, 2001.

16.
Zeina Karam, “Planner of Assault on Munich Olympics Has No Regrets,” Associated Press. Feb. 23, 2006.

17.
Gary C. Gambill, “The Syrian Muslim Brotherhood,
Mideast Mirror,
vol. 1, no. 2, Apr.–May 2006.

18.
The Muslim Brotherhood was also banned during Syria’s union with Egypt between 1958 and 1961, but allowed to run after the United Arab Republic crumbled.

19.
Patrick Seale,
Asad,
pp. 316–338.

20.
Ibid.

21.
The Massacres of Hama: Law Enforcement Requires Accountability,
Syrian Human Rights Committee, Feb. 1, 2005.

22.
Thomas L. Friedman,
From Beirut to Jerusalem
(New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1989), p. 80.

23.
The Massacres of Hama;
and interviews with human rights groups in Damascus, Apr. 2006.

24.
“Mid-Range Wars and Atrocities of the Twentieth Century,” http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat4.htm.

25.
Ibrahim Hamidi, “Islamist Streams on the March in Syria,”
Al Hayat,
Jan. 4, 2006.

26.
Anthony Shadid, “Inside and Outside Syria, a Debate to Decide the Future,”
The Washington Post,
Nov. 9, 2005.

27.
Deborah Amos, “Exiled Opposition Leader for Democracy in Syria,” National Public Radio, Dec. 1, 2005.

28.
Ibrahim Hamidi, “Islamist Streams on the March in Syria.”

29.
Charles Glass, “Is Syria Next?”
London Review of Books,
vol. 25, no. 14, July 24, 2003.

30.
Flynt Leverett, “Syria’s Wobbly Godfather Jr.: Will the Hariri Affair Be a Turning Point in the Assad Family Saga?
The Washington Post,
Oct. 30, 2005.

31.
Bouthaina Shaaban, “Outside View: Who Killed Hariri?”
United Press International,
Feb. 19, 2005, and www.bouthainashaaban.com, Feb. 22, 2005.

32.
Gary C. Gambill, “The Kurdish Reawakening in Syria,”
Middle East Intelligence Bulletin,
vol. 6, no. 4, April 2004.

33.
Christine Spolar, “Fearful Iraqis Seek Haven in Syria,”
The Chicago Tribune,
May 22, 2006.

34.
Dr. Nimrod Raphaeli, “The Syrian Economy under Bashar al Assad,” Middle East Media Research Institute, no. 259, Jan. 13, 2006.

35.
Matthew Levitt, “Syria and the War on Terrorism: Challenges for U.S. Policy (Part II),” PolicyWatch No. 596, The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, Jan. 24, 2002.

36.
Thomas L. Friedman,
From Beirut to Jerusalem,
p. 80.

37.
Albert Aji, “Prominent Syrian Human Rights Lawyer Among 6 Detained in Large Roundup,” Associated Press, May 17, 2006; and Mohammed Bazzi, “Syria Cracks Down on Dissidents,”
Newsday,
May 19, 2006.

CHAPTER SEVEN: IRAN: THE REVOLUTIONARIES

1.
Hamid Algar,
Islam and Revolution: Writings and Declarations of Imam Khomeini
(Berkeley, CA: Mizan Press, 1981)
,
pp. 169–173.

2.
Ironically, the loan was largely to buy American arms.

3.
Hamid Algar,
Islam and Revolution,
pp. 181–88.

4.
Muqtedar Khan, “Two Theories of Ijtihad,” Common Ground News Service, Mar. 22, 2006.

5.
Other faiths are deliberately excluded, notably the Baha’i, and often persecuted. The Baha’i are particularly viewed as heretics. They are also resented politically, as many were close to or worked for the monarchy.

6.
The Soviet Union and Britain invaded Iran in 1941 and forced Reza Shah to abdicate in favor of his twenty-two-year-old son. Reza Shah Pahlavi fled to South Africa, where he died three years later.

7.
Akbar Ganji,
Republican Manifesto,
Sept. 2, 2002.

8.
Akbar Ganji,
Republican Manifesto II
, May 30, 2005.

9.
Akbar Ganji, “Second Letter to the Free people of the World,” July 10, 2005.

10.
Akbar Ganji, “Letter to America,”
The Washington Post,
Sept. 21, 2006.

CHAPTER EIGHT: IRAN: THE REACTIONARIES

1.
Robin Wright,
In the Name of God: The Khomeini Decade
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1989), p. 227.

2.
“Abolishing the Ruling Islamic Party: Why and for Whose Sake?
The Middle East Reporter,
July 11, 1987, pp 13–15.

3.
Cheryl Benard and Zalmay Khalilzad,
The Government of God: Iran’s Islamic Republic
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1984), p. 110.

4.
Shaul Bakhash,
The Reign of the Ayatollahs: Iran and the Islamic Revolution
(New York: Basic Books 1989), p. 75.

5.
“Chronology,”
Middle East Journal,
vol. 36, no. 1, Winter 1982, p. 75.

6.
Among the Web sites collecting these are http://www.khamenei.de and http://www.khamenei.ir.

7.
Youssef M. Ibrahim, “Montazeri’s Evolution: An Heir Is Gone,”
The New York Times,
Apr. 2, 1989.

8.
Patrick E. Tyler, “Ten Days of Dawn, Ten Years of Struggle,”
The Washington Post,
Feb. 2, 1989.

9.
“Ayatollah Khomeini’s Criticism of the Government,”
The Echo of Iran,
Oct. 18, 1988, p. 9.

10.
The fatwa, read on Tehran Radio afternoon news, also called for the death of all those involved in the book’s publication. “I call on zealous Muslims to promptly execute them on the spot they find them, so that no one else will dare to blaspheme Muslim sanctities,” his fatwa declared.

11.
Elaine Sciolino, “Montazeri, Khomeini’s Designated Successor in Iran, Quits Under Pressure,”
The New York Times,
Mar. 29, 1989.

12.
Nazenin Ansari, “An Ayatollah Under Siege in Tehran,”
Open Democracy,
Oct. 4, 2006; and Nazila Fathi, “Iran Arrests Outspoken Cleric Who Opposes Religious Rule,”
The New York Times,
Oct. 9, 2006.

13.
Nazila Fathi, “Qum Journal: Where the Austerity of Islam Yields to a Yen for Chic,”
The New York Times,
June 7, 2005.

14.
Shaul Bakhash, “Iran’s Unlikely President,”
The New York Review of Books,
vol. 45, no. 17, Nov. 5, 1998.

15.
Neil MacFarquhar, “Iran Leader Vows to Enact Reforms in His Second Term,”
The New York Times,
Aug. 9, 2001.

16.
“Khatami Threatens Resignation over Power Struggle with Hard-Liners: Move Comes in Response to Widespread Dissatisfaction,”
The Daily Star,
July 14, 2003.

17.
Joe Klein, “Who Is Winning the Fight for Iran’s Future?”
The New Yorker,
Feb. 18–25, 2002.

18.
Karl Vick, “Iranian Elections Marked by Secular Messages, Apathy,”
The Washington Post,
June 15, 2005.

19.
Naysan Rafati, “Iran’s President Election: The Candidates Speak,” The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, June 23, 2005.

20.
Shaul Bakhash, “Reading Jefferson in Tehran,”
The Washington Post,
Aug. 13, 2006.

21.
“Iran’s Revolutionary Manager: Ahmadinejad in His Own Words,” Agence France Presse, June 25, 2005.