Meatonomics (43 page)

66
. US Environmental Protection Agency, “Major Crops Grown in the United States,” accessed December 20, 2011,
http://www.epa.gov
; Lester Brown, “Soybeans Threaten Amazon Rainforest,” Grist (2010), accessed October 27, 2012,
http://grist.org
.

67
. McWilliams,
Just Food
, 119.

68
. Christian J. Peters, Jennifer L. Wilkins, and Gary W. Fick, “Testing a Complete Diet Model for Estimating the Land Resource Requirements of Food Consumption and Agricultural Carrying Capacity: The New York State Example,”
Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems
22, no. 2 (2007): 145–53.

69
. Square kilometers converted to acres. Brazil Ministry of Science and Technology, National Institute for Space Research, “INPE Estimates a Reduction of 11% in Amazon Deforestation” (2011), accessed December 20, 2011,
http://www.inpe.br
.

70
. P. M. Fearnside, “Deforestation in Brazilian Amazonia: History, Rates and Consequences,”
Conservation Biology
19, no. 3 (2005): 680–88.

71
. Kilograms converted to pounds. Pimentel and Pimentel, “Meat-Based and Plant-Based Diets.”

72
. Ibid.; UN Food and Agriculture Organization, “The State of Food Insecurity in the World: Addressing Food Insecurity in Protracted Crises” (2010), accessed December 21, 2011,
http://www.fao.org
.

73
. Vaclav Smil,
Feeding the World: A Challenge for the Twenty-First Century
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001).

74
. US Environmental Protection Agency, “Ag 101: Land Use Overview,” National Agriculture Center, accessed December 21, 2011,
http://www.epa.gov
.

75
. McWilliams,
Just Food
, 120.

76
. Hertwich et al., “Assessing the Environmental Impacts of Consumption and Production.”

77
. Ibid., 82.

78
. US Environmental Protection Agency, “Methane: Sources and Emissions” (2011), accessed October 29, 2012,
http://www.epa.gov
.

1
. James D. Rose, “Do Fish Feel Pain?” (2000), accessed July 19, 2012,
http://www.coloradotu.org
.

2
. Matthew Scully,
Dominion: The Power of Man, the Suffering of Animals, and the Call to Mercy
(New York: St. Martin's Griffin, 2002), 258–59.

3
.
See, for example
, F. Bailey Norwood and Jayson L. Lusk,
Compassion by the Pound: The Economics of Farm Animal Welfare
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 344–45: “75 percent [of survey respondents] say they would vote for a law in their state requiring farmers to treat their animals better.”

4
. Ron Torell, “Cow Camp Chatter: Replacement Rate,”
Sage Signals: Voice of the Nevada Livestock Industry
(November, 2011): 6, accessed August 22, 2012,
http://www.nevadacattlemen.org
.

5
. Nicholas Fontaine,
Memories Pour Server a l'Histoire de Port-Royal
(Cologne, 1738): 52–53; quoted in
From Beast-Machine to Man-Machine: The Theme of Animal Soul in French Letters from Descartes to La Mettrie
, L. Rosenfield (New York: Oxford University Press, 1940).

6
. Lynne Sneddon, “The Evidence for Pain in Fish: The Use of Morphine as an Analgesic,”
Applied Animal Behaviour Science
83, no. 2 (2003): 153–62.

7
. D. A. Denton et al., “The Role of Primordial Emotions in the Evolutionary Origin of Consciousness,”
Consciousness and Cognition
18, no. 2 (2009): 500–14.

8
. Lynne U. Sneddon, Victoria A. Braithwaite, and Michael J. Gentle, “Do Fishes Have Nociceptors? Evidence for the Evolution of a Vertebrate Sensory System,”
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
270, no. 1520 (2003): 1115–21.

9
. Sneddon, “Pain in Fish.”

10
. Ibid.

11
. Janicke Nordgreen et al., “Thermonociception in Fish: Effects of Two Different Doses of Morphine on Thermal Threshold and Post-Test Behaviour in Goldfish (
Carassius Auratus
),”
Applied Animal Behavior Science
119, no. 1 (2009): 101–7.

12
. Quoted in Brian Wallheimer, “Fish May Actually Feel Pain and React to It Much Like Humans,”
Purdue University News
(April 29, 2009).

13
. T. G. Pottinger and A. D. Pickering, “Genetic Basis to the Stress Response: Selective Breeding for Stress Tolerant Fish,” in
Fish Stress and Health in Aquaculture
, ed. G. K. Iwama et al. (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997).

14
. Aquaculture Innovation Network, “Cataracts in Farmed Fish,” accessed August 26, 2011,
http://www.aquamedia.org
.

15
. P. J. Midtlyng et al., “Current Research on Cataracts in Fish,”
Bulletin of the European Association of Fish Pathologists
19, no. 6 (1999): 299–301.

16
. Mark D. Powell and Steve F. Perry, “Respiratory and Acid-Base Pathophysiology of Hydrogen Peroxide in Rainbow Trout (
Oncorhynchus mykiss Walbaum
),”
Aquatic Toxicology
37, no. 2 (1997): 99–112.

17
. N. W. Ross et al., “Changes in Hydrolytic Enzyme Activities of Naive Atlantic Salmon (
Salmo salar
) Skin Mucus Due to Infection with the Salmon Louse
(
Lepeophtheirus salmonis
) and Cortisol Implantation,”
Diseases of Aquatic Organisms
41, no. 1 (2000): 43–51; S. C. Johnson and L. J. Albright, “Effects of Cortisol Implants on the Susceptibility and the Histopathology of the Responses of Naive Coho Salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch to Experimental Infection with
Lepeophtheirus salmonis
(Copepoda: Caligidae),”
Diseases of Aquatic Organisms
14 (1992): 195–205.

18
. D. Mackay, “Perspectives on the Environmental Effects of Aquaculture,” (presentation, Aquaculture Europe Conference, Norway, August 1999).

19
. S. C. Kestin, S. B. Wotton, and S. Adams, “The Effect of CO
₂
, Concussion or Electrical Stunning of Rainbow Trout (
Oncorhynchus mykiss
) on Fish Welfare,” in
Quality in Aquaculture, Special Publication
23, eds. N. Svennevig and A. Krogdahl (Gent, Belgium: European Aquaculture Society, 1995); D. H. F. Robb et al., “Commercial Slaughter Methods Used on Atlantic Salmon: Determination of the Onset of Brain Failure by Electroencephalography,”
Veterinary Record
147, no. 11 (2000): 298–303.

20
. European Food Safety Authority, “Scientific Report of the Scientific Panel on Animal Health and Welfare” (2004), accessed August 27, 2011,
http://www.efsa.europa.eu
.

21
. S. C. Kestin, D. H. F. Robb, and J. W. van de Vis, “Protocol for Assessing Brain Function in Fish and the Effectiveness of Methods Used to Stun and Kill Them,”
Veterinary Record
150 (2002): 302–7.

22
. Robb et al., “Commercial Slaughter Methods Used on Atlantic Salmon”; E. Lambooij, R. J. Kloosterboer, M. A. Gerritzen, and J. W. van de Vis, “Head-Only Electrical Stunning and Bleeding of African Catfish (
Clarias gariepus
): Assessment of Loss of Consciousness,”
Animal Welfare
13, no. 1 (2004): 71–76.

23
. S. C. Kestin, S. B. Wotton, and N. G. Gregory, “Effect of Slaughter by Removal from Water on Visual Evoked Activity in the Brain and Reflex Movement of Rainbow Trout (
Oncorhynchus mykiss
),”
Veterinary Record
128, no. 19 (1991): 443–46.

24
. Per Olav Skjervold et al., “Live-Chilling and Crowding Stress Before Slaughter of Atlantic Salmon (
Salmo salar
),”
Aquaculture
192, no. 2 (2001): 265–80.

25
. Norwood and Lusk,
Compassion by the Pound
, 298.

26
. Unrounded, the figures are $341.53 and $345.09. Ibid.

27
. $343.31 x 5 = $1,716.55 in 2011 dollars; the inflation-adjusted total is $1,751.10.

28
. Assuming 236.8 million US adults: ($1,751.10 x 236,800,000)/20 = $20,733,024,000.

29
. L. R. Mathews and J. Ladewig, “Environmental Requirements of Pigs Measured by Behavioral Demand Functions,”
Animal Behavior
47, no. 3 (1994): 713–19.

1
. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, “Guidelines to Reduce Sea Turtle Mortality in Fishing Operations” (2010), accessed October 1, 2012,
http://www.fao.org
.

2
.
Ctr. for Marine Conservation v. Brown
, 917 F. Supp. 1128, 1136 (S.D. Tex. 1996)

3
. Maya Rodriguez, “Federal Regulators, Shrimpers at Odds over Use of Turtle Excluder Devices,”
WWWLTV.com Eyewitness News
(June 5, 2012), accessed June 15, 2012,
http://www.wwltv.com
.

4
. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, “Guidelines to Reduce Sea Turtle Mortality.”

5
. FAO states that 23,436 fishing ships have IHS-F (IMO) numbers, a numbering status reserved for ships of 100 tons or more. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, “The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture” (2010), 107, accessed October 1, 2012,
http://www.fao.org
.

6
. Canada, Russia, Norway, Iceland, Greenland, and New Zealand all ban discards to some extent, and the European Union recently adopted a limited ban with effect in 2014. Discard bans require that bycatch be landed and counted against quotas, which provide incentives to fish with gear and in areas that minimize bycatch. While bans are clearly better than ignoring the issue, their effectiveness is often limited by cheating, continuing discards of noncontrolled species, and questions as to how to handle landed bycatch. (Ivor Clucas, “A Study of the Options for Utilization of Bycatch and Discards from Marine Capture Fisheries,”
UN FAO Fisheries Circular
928 FIIU/C928 [1997], accessed June 23, 2012,
http://www.fao.org
.) Nevertheless, the Norwegian government believes its ban is working. “The very existence of the rule,” says the Norwegian Ministry of Fisheries and Coastal Affairs, “has proved beneficial in changing fishermen's attitudes and discouraging the practice of discarding.” (Norwegian Ministry of Fisheries and Coastal Affairs, “Norwegian Fisheries Management, Our Approach on Discard of Fish,” accessed June 23, 2012,
www.regjeringen.no
.)

7
. International Union for Conservation of Nature, “IUCN Red List of Threatened Species,” accessed August 25, 2011,
http://www.iucnredlist.org
.

8
. Nigel Brothers, “Albatross Mortality and Associated Bait Loss in the Japanese Longline Fishery in the Southern Ocean,”
Biological Conservation
55, no. 3 (1991).

9
. R. W. D. Davies et al., “Defining and Estimating Global Marine Fisheries Bycatch,”
Marine Policy
33, no. 4 (2009): 661–72.

10
. Annual worldwide catch is estimated at 86 million tons, or 172 billion pounds. (Michael Parfit, “Diminishing Returns,”
National Geographic
[November 1995].) Davies et al. estimate that 40.4 percent of that total, or 69.5 billion pounds, is discarded each year as bycatch. Dividing this figure by
365 reveals that roughly 190.4 million pounds of bycatch is discarded each day. (Davies et al., “Estimating Bycatch.”)

11
. Dayton L. Alverson et al.,
A Global Assessment of Fisheries Bycatch and Discards
(Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1994).

12
. Ibid.

13
. Ibid.

14
. Ibid.

15
. Ibid.

16
. Ibid (emphasis added).

17
. World Bank and United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, “The Sunken Billions: The Economic Justification for Fisheries Reform” (2009), 21, accessed October 1, 2012,
http://www.worldbank.org
.

18
. US fishing subsidies total $1.8 billion in 2003 dollars, or $2.3 billion today. Sumaila et al., “Re-Estimation of Fisheries Subsidies.”

19
. According to NOAA, US seafood landings in 2010 totaled 8.2 billion pounds and were worth $4.5 billion (or $4.8 billion in 2012 dollars). $4.8 billion / 8.2 billion pounds = $0.59 per pound. The $2.3 billion annual subsidy is 0.48 of the value of total landings of $4.8 billion, and as $0.59 x 0.48 = 0.28 (rounded), this implies a subsidy value of $0.28 for each pound landed. (Note that because of value added in fish processing, the price of fish at their first introduction to human markets, as landings, is much lower than when later offered as a retail product.) National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, “U.S. Domestic Seafood Landings and Values Increase in 2010” (2011), accessed October 30, 2012,
http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov
.

20
. Sumaila et al., “Re-Estimation of Fisheries Subsidies.”

21
. World Bank and UN Food and Agriculture Organization,
The Sunken Billions
, 31.

22
. Boris Worm et al., “Impacts of Biodiversity Loss.”

23
. Ibid.

24
. Ibid.

25
. United Nations Environment Program Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, “Collapse of Atlantic Cod Stocks Off the East Coast of Newfoundland in 1992” (2005), accessed October 1, 2012,
http://www.grida.no
.

26
. Lan T. Gien, “Land and Sea Connection: The East Coast Fishery Closure, Unemployment and Health,”
Canadian Journal of Public Health
91, no. 2 (2000): 121–24.

27
. Erlingur Hauksson and Valur Bogason, “Comparative Feeding of Grey (
Halichoerus grypus
) and Common Seals (
Phoca vitulina
) in Coastal Waters of Iceland, with a Note on the Diet of Hooded (
Cystophora cristata
) and Harp Seals (
Phoca groenlandica
),”
Journal of Northwest Atlantic Fishery Science
22 (1997).