Muslim Fortresses in the Levant: Between Crusaders and Mongols (109 page)

Mamluk fortresses in Cilicia

Acquiring the black fortress

Moving west from the region of the Euphrates, 160km as the crow flies, is the fortress of Tall
, approximately 12km west of the modern Turkish town of Osmaniye. Positioned on a low hill (65m above the surrounding area), it guards the northern passage across the Amanus range. From here one could travel south to the ports along the eastern coast of the present Bay of Iskenderun and west to Ayās (modern Yumurtalik) which was the most important Armenian port connecting the Iranian and Central Asian trade routes with the eastern Mediterranean and Europe. The location at an important junction made this a desirable site.

Throughout the twelfth century the fortress rotated between the Byzantines, the Franks and the Armenians. John II Comnenus (r. 1118–43), and his successor Manuel Comnenus (r. 1143–80), the Armenian baron Toros II, and the Frankish ruler of Antioch, Bohemond III (r. 1163–1201) played major roles in the history of the fortress during this period.
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The situation did not change much during the first four decades of Mamluk rule. The site was often held y the Armenians, besieged by the Mamluks, lost and then won through diplomatic negotiations. This cycle revolved several times. The Mamluks showed the same keen interest in holding the fortress as did the regional Frankish princes, Byzantine emperors and Armenian kings before them. The following account shows how determined the Mamluk sultan was. During
Lachin’s reign in 697/1298, a Mamluk army was sent to raid Cilicia and capture Tall
. It was made clear to the amirs in charge that they were not to return before they seized the fortress. They were further threatened that if they failed they would lose their
.
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Besides its economic importance due to its location at the edge of the trade routes, the fortress filled a fairly important place in the Mamluk defenses. The garrison was expected to keep a careful watch on Armenian movements. The Armenians, who were close allies of the Īlkhānids, often joined them on their campaigns into Syria. The possibility of a joint Armenian, European and Īlkhānid front did not escape the Mamluks, and thus their presence in Cilicia was of great importance to them. It is, however, clear from the rotation of the Cilician fortresses back and forth between the Mamluks and the Armenians that the Mamluk strongholds in Cilicia were not as well organized and did not receive the same military support as those along the Euphrates frontier.

The archaeological remains to a certain extent display this frequent change of ownership. Sections of what can be seen today were constructed by the Mamluks; those parts are uniform in appearance and the architecture is similar to that found in other Mamluk sites. Both Sinclair and Edwards surveyed the site and recorded the Mamluk phase.
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The Mamluks first captured the fortress in 664–5/1266. The garrison was slain an the fortress set on fire.
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In 1280 the fortress was again in Armenian hands. In 692/1293 al-Ashraf Khalīl received the fortress in a treaty signed by the Armenian king Thoros III (r. 1193–8);
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within five years the fortress was retaken by the Armenians. In 697/1298 the Mamluks besieged Tall
for almost a month before the Armenian garrison capitulated.
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Later in the same year the Armenians signed a treaty agreeing that the fortress should remain under Mamluk rule. Following the Mongol victory in 1299 the Armenians recovered Tall
.
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In 703/1303–4 an Egyptian force together with armies from Hama and Aleppo besieged the fortress which fell after terms were negotiated with the Armenian garrison.
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According to Abū’l-Fidā’, the Mamluk forces had it “razed to the ground.” He concludes this short paragraph by saying that he did not take part in this assault since he was in the holy Hijāz. It sounds as if Abū’l-Fidā’ himself was not quite sure how reliable this last piece of information was.
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It is difficult to determine when the Mamluks rebuilt Tall
. On two occasions the fortress was captured and left in ruins (1266 and possibly in 1303–4). The determination displayed by the Mamluks in the last decade of the thirteenth century suggests they may have invested in strengthening the fortress during this period, though none of the sources explicitly say so. The site probably remained in Mamluk hands from 1337, when it was surrendered by Leon IV.
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It is possible that some constructions were added after 1375 when the entire area of Cilicia was annexed by the Mamluk sultanate.

The village and fortress defenses

The plan and building techniques at Tall
do not resemble those found in the Armenian fortresses in Cilicia. The fortress had two main building phases, though it is difficult to determine the period of the first phase. Any one of the following is possible: Byzantine, Early Muslim or Frankish. The second phase is almost purely Mamluk.
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While Byzantine and Armenian features can still be seen, the only tangible evidence of an early Muslim presence is the name,
which suggests it was built by the
dynasty (293/906–394/1004). It is said that in 173/786 Hārūn al-Rashīd built a fortress above an old Greek fort of black stone.
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Archaeological evidence from this early stage may well be recovered if the site is excavated.