Redeemers (64 page)

Sources

E
PIGRAPH

The epigraph is from “La letra y el cetro,”
Plural
13, October 1972.

 

J
OSÉ
M
ARTÍ

My major sources were the writings of Martí himself: his letters, articles, and to a lesser degree his poems. I worked with the electronic edition of his
Obras Completas
(Centro de Estudios Martianos y Karisma Digital, Havana, 2001, on CD-ROM) but also with the print edition (Lex, Havana, 1946) and other collections, especially his
Epistolario
in five volumes (Colección Textos Martianos, Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, Havana, 1993) and the three-volume edition of his
Obras Escogidas
(Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, Havana, 2002), his
Nuestra América
(Biblioteca Ayacucho, 1985), and his
Poesía completa: Edición crítica
(UNAM, Mexico, 1998). I also drew biographical information from
El diario del soldado
, a biographical account by a close friend of Martí, Fermín Valdés Domínguez, available at www.josemarti.org/temas/biografía/amigos.

For his ideas on democratic government and republics, I consulted his
El presidio político en Cuba
and
La República Española ante la revolución cubana
. Both can be found in
Obras completas
. Most of his articles written in the United States (often dealing with his life in New York and including his pieces on the death of Marx and on revolutionary violence) are in the five volumes of
En los Estados Unidos: Escenas Norteamericanas
(volumes 9–12 of the
Obras Completas
and also volume 13:
Norteamérica
,
Letras
,
pintura y artículos varios
).

Among the considerable number of biographies and biographical articles on Martí, I found the following particularly relevant:
Martí
,
escritor
, by Andrés Iduarte (Joaquín Mortiz, México, 1982); on his period in Mexico:
Martí en México
,
recuerdos de una época,
by Alfonso Herrera Franyutti (Conaculta, 1996); for his place in the history of literary modernism:
Las corrientes literarias en la América Hispána
, by Pedro Henríquez Ureña (Fondo de Cultura Económica [hereafter FCE], 1949) and “La poesía de Martí y el modernismo: examen de un malentendido” by Emir Rodríguez Monegal in
Número
, 1a. época, n 22, January to March 1953. The record of his unhappy love life and his relation to his daughter are detailed in José Miguel Oviedo's
La niña de Nueva York
(FCE, 1989). Hugh Thomas in
Cuba: The Pursuit of Freedom
(Da Capo, New York, 1998) discusses his role in Cuban history, as does Rafael Rojas in
José Martí: la Invención de Cuba
(Editorial Colibrí, 1997). How his image was used by the modern Cuban Revolution is analyzed in an article by Enrico Mario Santi, “José Martí y la Revolución Cubana,” in
Vuelta
, no. 121, December 1986. For the role of Martí within Caribbean culture, I consulted the great book by Gordon K. Lewis:
Main Currents in Caribbean Thought: The Historical Evolution of Caribbean Society in Its Ideological Aspects
,
1492–1900
(University of Nebraska Press, 2004). Very useful on the literary and spiritual impact of Martí were the letters and notes of Miguel de Unamuno (Archivo José Martí, Ministerio de Educación, Cuba, núm. II, Tomo IV, Enero Dic. No. 1, 1947). Guillermo Cabrera Infante, in
Mea Cuba
(Vuelta, Mexico, 1993), provides a moving description of his tragic death.

 

J
OSÉ
E
NRIQUE
R
ODÓ

I based my study primarily on the writings of José Enrique Rodó himself:
Obras completas
, with an introduction, excellent prologue, and notes by Emir Rodríguez Monegal, 2nd ed. (Aguilar, Madrid, 1967), and on
José Enrique Rodó:
La América Nuestra,
compilation and prologue by Arturo Ardao (Casa de las Américas, 1970). I also consulted the Ayacucho edition (1993) of
Ariel
and
Motivos de Proteo.
His letters can be found in
Obra póstuma
, volume 17 of the
Obras completas
.

Biographies and interpretations of Rodó that I found of value included
Rodó
:
Medio siglo de Ariel (Su significación y trascendencia literario-filosófica)
by Carlos Real de Azúa, the foremost specialist in the works of Rodó (Academia Nacional de Letras, Uruguay, 2001) and
Marmoreal Olympus: José Enrique Rodó and Spanish American Nationalism
, by David Brading (Centre for Latin American Studies, University of Cambridge, 1998). On the final collapse of the Spanish Empire:
El fin del imperio español (1898–1923)
, by Sebastián Balfour (Crítica, Barcelona, 1997). An important landmark in anti-imperialist criticism is “To the person sitting in darkness,” by Mark Twain, published in
North American Review
in February 1901, to be found in
Tales, Speeches, Essays, and Sketches
(Penguin, New York, 1994). On the American influence on Mexico's 1824 Constitution and Lorenzo de Zavala:
La Independencia de México. Textos de su historia. Vol. II. El constitucionalismo
:
un logro
(SEP-Instituto Mora, Mexico, 1985). The quotation from Simón Bolívar is in
Discursos y proclamas
(Biblioteca Ayacucho, Caracas, 2007). Also relevant is his “Carta de Jamaica
”
in
Doctrina del libertador
(Biblioteca Ayacucho, Caracas, 1976). The quotation from Faustino Domingo Sarmiento is in his
Viajes
(Unesco, ALLCA—F.C.E., Archivos 27, Nan-terre, France, 1996). The texts by Justo Sierra are in his
En tierra yanquee
(Tipográfica de la impresora del Timbre, Mexico, 1897). For the Spanish reaction to their defeat in 1898: Ángel Ganivet,
El porvenir de España
, en
Obras completas
, volume 2 (Aguilar, Madrid, 1957). Useful on the ideological and cultural misunderstandings between the two Americas are the articles by Tulio Halperin Donghi (“Dos siglos de reflexiones sudamericanas”) and Enrique Krauze (“Mirándolos a ellos”), both to be found in the collection
La brecha entre América Latina y Estados Unidos
(FCE, 2006). Kipling's “The White Man's Burden” first appeared in
McClure's
, February 12, 1899. On the image and uses of Shakespeare's Caliban within Latin American culture: Rubén Darío in
El Tiempo
, Buenos Aires, May 20, 1898, collected in
El Modernismo visto por los modernistas,
edited by Ricardo Gullón (Labor, Barcelona, 1980) and “Caliban,” by Ernest Renán in
Drames philosophiques
(Calman-Lévy, Paris, 1923). The quotation from Groussac is from
Del Plata al Niágara
(Administración de la Biblioteca de Buenos Aires, 1897).

On the influence of Rodó's
Ariel
in Latin America: the books of Pedro Henríquez Ureña
, Las corrientes literarias en la América Hispána
(FCE, 1949);
Obra crítica
(FCE, 1981); and
La utopía de América
(FCE, 1989). Also Emir Rodríguez Monegal's “El maestro de la Belle Epoque,” in
Revista de la Universidad de México
, vol. 26, no. 2, October 1971. On Rodó in Spain: Rafael Altamira, prologue to
Liberalismo y jacobinismo
de José Enrique Rodó
(Editorial Cervantes, Barcelona, 1926).

The poem “A Roosevelt,” by Rubén Darío, is in his
Poesías completas
(FCE, Biblioteca Americana, 1984). On Alfredo Palacios: the essay by Mariátegui: “Alfredo Palacios” in
Temas De Nuestra América
, in
Obras completas,
vol. 12. On Manuel Ugarte, I consulted his article “El peligro yanqui,” in
El País
, Buenos Aires, October 19, 1901, in the Biblioteca Nacional de la República Argentina, while his “Carta abierta al presidente de los Estados Unidos” was published in many Latin American newspapers. His writings have been collected in
La Nación Latinoamericana
(Ayacucho, Caracas, 1978). On the university reforms of 1918:
La Reforma Universitaria (1918–1930)
(Biblioteca Ayacucho, Caracas). On Deodoro Roca:
Entre influencias y olvidos
, by Fernando Pedró (Asterión XXI,
Re-vista cultural
). On Thomas Carlyle in the writings of Rodó, see Rodó's
Motivos de Proteo
and
El mirador de Próspero
. On the influence of Carlyle in Latin America:
Las democracias latinas de América
, by Francisco García Calderón (Biblioteca Ayacucho, Caracas, 1985). My description of Rodó's final years is based on the above-mentioned biographies.

 

J
SÉ
V
ASCONCELOS

The major source for information on Vasconcelos continues to be his classic autobiography in four volumes:
Ulises criollo
, 1935;
La tormenta
, 1936;
El desastre
, 1938; and
El proconsulado
, 1939, which I used in its original edition published by Ediciones Botas. I also made use of his collected letters, especially
Las
Cartas políticas de José Vasconcelos
, edited by Alfonso Taracena (Editora Librería, Mexico, 1959) and
Vasconcelos–Alfonso Reyes
:
Correspondence
(IFAL, Mexico, 1976), compiled by Claude. J. Fell.

For the cultural environment before, during, and after the Mexican Revolution, I applied and expanded the research already done for my books
Caudillos culturales en la Revolución Mexicana
(Siglo XXI, Mexico, 1976) and
Daniel Cosío Villegas
,
Una biografía intelectual
(Joaquín Mortiz, Mexico, 1980). On his childhood, youth, and family life, I conducted interviews in 1988 with his daughter Carmen and son José Ignacio Vasconcelos. I also consulted two articles by John Skirius: “Génesis de Vasconcelos
”
(
Vuelta
37, December 1979), and “Mocedades de Vasconcelos” (
Vuelta
43, May 1980). For his time as Secretary of Education: the book by Claude J. Fell,
Los años del águila
,
1920–1925
(UNAM, Mexico, 1989). On the Vasconcelos movement of 1929, I interviewed Andrés Henestrosa and Alejandro Gómez Arias in May 1989 and explored the exhaustive work of Skirius:
José Vasconcelos y la cruzada
de 1929
(Siglo XXI, 1978) and Henestrosa's article “La campaña presidencial de 1929,” in
Excélsior
, February 1982.

From Vasconcelos's vast production and his work as an editor of magazines, I made ample use of his
Obras completas
, published between 1957 and 1961 (Libreros Mexicanos Unidos, Mexico), and the anthology
Páginas escogidas
(Ediciones Botas, 1940). I also consulted “Cuando el águila destroce a la serpiente,”
El Maestro
, 1921; “Un llamado Cordial,”
El maestro
, 1921;
El movimiento educativo en México
(issued as a pamphlet, Mexico, 1922); and his “Discourse on the Day of the Teacher,” 1924; the magazine
La Antorcha
, Segundo Período, 13 números: abril de 1931 a abril de 1932. For his connections with Nazi Germany,
La revista Timón y José Vasconcelos
, Itzhak Bar-Lewaw (Edimex, Mexico, 1971). Also: “La inteligencia se impone,” in
Timón
, June 8, 1940, num. 16. On his final years: “Siempre he sido cristiano,” Sergio Avilés Parra, (
Mañana
, Mexico) January 24, 1948; “Vasconcelos, voz clamante en el desierto,” Emmanuel Carballo in the “México en la Cultura” supplement to
Novedades
(January 4, 1959); Interview with Vasconcelos, in
Señal, semanario católico
(July 5, 1959).

Among the most useful books that deal with him are
Ensayos y notas
, by Daniel Cosío Villegas (Editorial Hermes, 1966); Jorge Cuesta's
Poemas y ensayos. Tomo III
(UNAM, Mexico 1964); Manuel Gómez Morin's
1915
(CULTURA, 1927); Alfonso Reyes, his
Obras completas
, volumes 12, 2, and 4;
Diálogo de los libros
, by Julio Torri (FCE, 1980).

 

J
OSÉ
C
ARLOS
M
ARIÁTEGUI

Mariátegui's collected works fill twenty volumes:
Obras completas de José Carlos Mariátegui
(Amauta, Lima—cited below as
O.C.
), a collection that includes (in volumes 10 and 20) texts by various authors about Mariátegui and about the project of Mariategui's magazine
Amauta.
I also frequently consulted his works at http://www.patriaroja.org.pe.docs_adic/obras_mariategui/, and the facsímile edition of the magazine
Amauta
(Editora Amauta, 1926–30, nos. 1–32).

The major sources on his life:
Etapas de su vida
, by María Wiesse (
O.C.,
vol. 10, Amauta, 12th ed., Lima, 1987);
Introducción a Mariátegui
, by Aníbal Quijano (Ediciones Era, Mexico, 1982); and
Mariátegui y su tiempo,
by Armando Bazán (
O.C.,
vol. 20, Amauta, Lima, 1969).
La Creación Heroica de José Carlos Mariátegui
,
T. I. La Edad de Piedra (1894–1919)
by Guillermo Rouillon (Editorial Arica, Lima, 1975) supplied a great deal of information on his childhood and youth. Also of use was a biographical documentary, produced by TV Perú,
Sucedió en el Perú: José Carlos Mariátegui,
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2oUc6TQgjj0&p=AED877BBD07839A7&playnext=1&index=1).