Redeemers (67 page)

On Octavio Paz and García Márquez, see the interviews by Rita Guibert and Julián Ríos in Paz's
Obras completas
(Círculo de Lectores y Fondo de Cultura Económica, vol. 15). The text by Mario Vargas Llosa comparing
One Hundred Years of Solitude
to the epic of Amadis of Gaul is in
Sables y utopías: Visiones de América Latina
(Aguilar, Mexico, 2009). On the Latin American novels dealing with dictators:
La palabra mágica
, by Augusto Monterroso (Ediciones Era, Mexico, 1983). A valuable article on
El otoño del patriarca
is “Vasto reino de pesadumbre,” by Alejandro Rossi,
Plural
, September 1975. On García Márquez as a journalist: the review of
News of a Kidnapping
by Charles Lane,
New Republic
, August 25, 1997, and Gabriel Zaid, “Relato donde no se escucha a un náufrago,”
Vuelta
, April 1979. For the connections of García Márquez with Cuba and Fidel:
Coto vedado: En los reinos de Taifa
, by Juan Goytisolo (Ediciones Península, Barcelona, 2002) and
La hora final de Castro: la historia secreta detrás de la inminente caída del comunismo en Cuba
, by Andrés Oppenheimer (Vegara, Madrid, 2001). For the friendship between García Márquez and Castro:
Fidel & Gabo: A Portrait of the Legendary Friendship Between Fidel Castro and Gabriel García Márquez
, by Ángel Esteban and Stéphanie Panichelli (Pegasus, New York, 2009). For the episode of the executed boat people see the newspaper accounts in
La Jornada,
April 2, 14, 28, 29, and 30, 2003. For the address by Susan Sontag in Frankfurt: http://www.stecyl.es/prensa/031015.ep_Sontag_titere_con_cabeza.htm.

 

M
ARIO
V
ARGAS
L
LOSA

Some of the material in this chapter appeared in the following articles in
The New Republic
: “Revolution's Revenge,” June 23, 1986 and “Exorcisms,” February 11, 2002.

The primary biographical source on Vargas Llosa is his autobiographical account,
El pez en el agua
(Seix Barral, first reprinting in Mexico, 1993). Very important were my conversations with Fernando Szyszlo in Lima in 2003 and with Vargas Llosa himself in Mexico City, in March 2010. Another important resource was
Diálogo con Vargas Llosa
, by Ricardo A. Setti (Kosmos Editorial, Mexico, 1989). Among his other writings most relevant to this chapter were the novels
La guerra del fin del mundo
(Alfaguara, Barcelona, 1997),
Historia de Mayta
(Seix Barral, Barcelona, 1984), and
La fiesta del Chivo
(Alfaguara, Bogotá, 2000), and, among his nonfiction books,
La utopía arcaica: José María Arguedas y las ficciones del indigenismo
(FCE, 1996).

On Peru as a multiracial and conflict-ridden country, see his article “El país de las mil caras,” in
Contra viento y marea III (1964–1988)
(Seix Barral, first reprinting in Mexico, 1990). On his early literary and political decades, see his
Literatura y política
(ITESM/Ariel, Mexico, 2001) and
Historia secreta de una novela
(Tusquets, Barcelona, 1971).

He discusses his relationship with Cuba in
Sables y utopías: Visiones de América Latina
(Aguilar, Mexico, 2009) and in his discourse on receiving the Rómulo Gallegos Prize, “La literatura es fuego,” which can be found in the
Revista Nacional de Cultura (181)
, year 29, Caracas, July–September 1967. His exchanges of letters with García Márquez, Roberto Fernández Retamar, and Haydée Santamaría are in the Archives of Mario Vargas Llosa at Prince ton and his “Carta a Haydée Santamaría” in
Sables y utopías
.

On his polemics with the Cuban Revolution, see “A propósito de
Historia de un deicidio
: Va de retro,” by Angel Rama, in
Marcha
, Uruguay, May 5, 1972. The perspectives and opinions of his first wife on their matrimony:
Lo que Varguitas no dijo,
by Julia Urquidi (Ediciones Última Hora, La Paz, Bolivia, 1983). On his disenchantment with Sartre and his encounter with the thought of Camus, see his
Entre Sartre y Camus
(Ediciones Huracán, Puerto Rico, 1981) and “La rebelión perpetua,” interview by Danubio Torres Fierro with Mario Vargas Llosa,
Plural
, August 1975.

On his redirection toward economic liberalism and his sympathy for the ideas of Hernando de Soto, see his article “La revolución silenciosa,” in
Contra viento y marea III (1964–1988)
(Seix Barral, first reprinting in Mexico, 1990). His important reportage in the 1980s, “Sangre y mugre de Uchuraccay,” can also be found in that volume. Some of my comments on his presidential campaign were gathered firsthand during my presence in Peru in March 1990. On various positives and negatives of his campaign, see the review of the translation of
El pez en el agua
(A Fish in the Water) by Alan Riding in the
New York Times
, May 15, 1994. For Vargas Llosa's current praise for the American Tea Party movement, see his column “Las caras del Tea Party” in
El País
, October 10, 2010. The discussion of Vargas Llosa's views on power and dictatorship is drawn from my interviews with the writer.

 

S
AMUEL
R
UIZ

Most of this chapter appeared in the article “Chiapas: The Indians' prophet,” in
The New York Review of Books
, December 16, 1999.

I drew much material for the chapter from my two visits to Chiapas (September 1994 and October 1998). On both visits I interviewed Samuel Ruiz, and on my second visit, some of the figures within the Church connected in one way or another with the theological and political ferment in Chiapas: Padre Diego Andrés Lockett, Fray Gonzalo Ituarte, Padre Javier Vargas. During that week I also spoke at length with two academic specialists on the history, society, and politics of that state: Juan Pedro Viqueira and Jan de Vos.

The most useful writings by Samuel Ruiz were his
Teología bíblica de la liberación
(Editorial Jus–Librería Parroquial, Mexico, 1975) and
En esta hora de gracia: Carta pastoral con motivo del saludo de S.S el Papa Juan Pablo II a los indígenas del continente
(Ediciones Dabar, Mexico, 1993).

Books and articles on the rebellion in Chiapas:
Chiapas
,
el obispo de San Cristóbal y la revuelta zapatista
, by John Womack, Jr. (Cal y Arena, Mexico, 1998) and his
Rebellion in Chiapas
:
An Historical Reader
(New Press, New York, 1999);
Marcos
:
la genial impostura
, Bertrand de la Grange and Maite Rico (Editorial Aguilar, Mexico, 1998);
El caminante
, by Carlos Fazio (Espasa-Calpe, Mexico, 1994);
La rebelión de Las Cañadas
, by Carlos Tello Díaz (Cal y Arena, Mexico, 1995);
Religión
,
política y guerrilla en Las Cañadas de la Selva Lacandona
, by María del Carmen Legorreta Díaz (Cal y Arena, Mexico, 1998); two texts by Xóchitl Leyva and Gabriel Ascencio Franco:
Lacandonia al filo del agua
(Mexico, 1996) and “Testimonio de don Eustaquio,” in “Catequistas, misioneros y tradiciones en Las Cañadas,” which can be found in
Chiapas: Los rumbos de otra historia
, by Juan Pedro Viqueira and Mario Humberto Ruz (UNAM and University of Guadalajara, 1995);
Proceso catequístico en la zona tzeltal y desarrollo social (un estudio de caso)
, by Reyna Matilde Coello Castro (Universidad Autónoma de Tlaxcala, Tlaxcala, 1991). An important article in two parts appeared in the magazine
Proceso
: September 13 and 20, 1993: “Estamos buscando libertad. Los tzeltales de la selva anuncian la buena nueva.”

My historical sources on the Indian theme in Mexican history were
Historia General de las Indias Occidentales y particular de la gobernación de Guatemala
, by Fray Antonio de Remesal (Porrúa, Mexico, 1988); two works by Fray Bartolomé de las Casas:
Del único modo de atraer a todos los pueblos a la verdadera religión
(FCE, Mexico, 1992) and
Historia de las Indias
(FCE, Mexico, 1992). Also
Carta al emperador: Refutación a Las Casas sobre la Colonización Española
, by Fray Toribio de Benavente Motolinía (Jus, Mexico, 1949);
Noticias de la vida y escritos de Fray Toribio de Benavente o Motolinía
, by José Fernando Ramírez. On the Indians of Chiapas: “El encuentro de los mayas de Chiapas con la teología de la liberación,” by Jan de Vos, in
Eslabones
(University of Colima, Colima, July– December 1997) and “El Lacandón: una introducción histórica” in
Chiapas: Los rumbos de otra historia
, by Juan Pedro Viqueira and Mario Humberto Ruz (UNAM and University of Guadalajara, 1995); “El Congreso Indígena de Chiapas: un testimonio,” by Jesús Morales Bermúdez, in
Anuario 1991
(Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Instituto Chiapaneco de Cultura, 1992). Viqueira and Ruz's
Chiapas
is of outstanding interest, especially the essays by Viqueira: “Los altos de Chiapas: una introducción general” and “Las causas de una rebelión india: Chiapas, 1712.” On the pedagogy utilized in Ruiz's educational project:
Misión Chamula: San Cristóbal de las Casas
, by Pablo Iribarren (edition printed in offset, 1980) and Paulo Freyre's
Pedagogía del oprimido
(Pedagogy of the Oppressed) (Siglo XXI, Mexico, 1984).

 

S
UBCOMANDANTE
M
ARCOS

Some of the material in this chapter appeared in the article “The View from La Realidad,” in
The New Republic
, August 13, 2001.

From January 1, 1994, until the middle of 2001, Subcomandante Marcos and the Zapatista movement had a major impact on the political life of Mexico. At the time, I followed the movement closely, wrote about Marcos and Bishop Samuel Ruiz, and visited the state of Chiapas when it was in ferment. Some of the material presented in this chapter comes from articles I wrote then, collected in my book
Tarea Política
(Tusquets, Mexico, 2000). I also deal at some length with the latter-day Zapatista movement in my book
Mexico: Biography of Power
(Harper-Collins, New York, 1997).

My principal sources:
La rebelión de las Cañadas: Origen y ascenso del EZLN
, by Carlos Tello Díaz, corrected and augmented edition (Cal y Arena, Mexico, 2000) and
Marcos: la genial impostura
, by Bertrand de la Grange and Maite Rico (Aguilar Nuevo Siglo, Mexico, 1997). Also consulted:
Marcos: El señor de los espejos
, by Manuel Vázquez Montalbán (Aguilar, Mexico, 1999);
La guerra en el papel
, by Marco Levario Turcott (Cal y Arena, Mexico, 1999) and
Subcomandante Marcos: El Sueño zapatista
, by Yvon Le Bot (Plaza & Janés, Mexico, 1997).

For a discussion of Peruvian and Mexican indigenism, the myth of Incarri, and the figure of Rumi Maqui, see
La utopía arcaica: José María Arguedas y las ficciones del indigenismo
, by Mario Vargas Llosa (FCE, Mexico, 1996). For the history of Indian rebellions in Chiapas, see
María Candelaria: India natural de Cancuc
, by Juan Pedro Viqueira Albán (FCE, Mexico, 1993) and the volumes of the collection
Chiapas: Los rumbos de otra historia,
edited by Juan Pedro Viqueira and Mario Humberto Ruz (University of Guadalajara, Mexico, 1995).

For the specific history of the rebellion:
Rebellion in Chiapas: An Historical Reader
, by John Womack, Jr. (New Press, New York, 1999);
Our word is our weapon: Selected writings,
by Subcomandante Marcos, edited by Juana Ponce de León (Seven Stories, New York, 2001); and
EZLN. Documentos y comunicados
, edited by Elena Poniatowska and Carlos Monsiváis (Ediciones Era, Mexico, 1994).

For the perspectives of the Zapatista movement in relation to democracy:
Democracia en tierras indígenas: Las elecciones en los Altos de Chiapas (1992–1998)
, by Juan Pedro Viqueira and Willibald Sonnleitner (El Colegio de México, Mexico, 2000). For a criticism of the ideology of Zapatismo, see the article by Juan Pedro Viqueira, “Los peligros del Chiapas imaginario,”
Letras Libres,
January 1999. For an overview of the present situation:
Los indígenas de Chiapas y la rebelión zapatista: Micro-historias políticas
, by Marco Estrada Saavedra and Juan Pedro Viqueira (El Colegio de México, Mexico, 2010).

A criticism of indigenism can be found in
Buscando un Inca: Identidad y utopía en los Andes
, by Alberto Flores Galindo (Horizonte, Lima, 1986). For a literary appreciation of Marcos's writings, I consulted “El prosista armado,” by Christopher Domínguez Michael,
Letras Libres,
January 1999, and for a sociological consideration of neo-Zapatismo: “La guerrilla postmoderna,” Gabriel Zaid, in
Claves de la razón práctica,
vol. 44 (July 1994).

 

H
UGO
C
HÁVEZ

An earlier version of much of this chapter appeared under the title of “The Shah of Venezuela” in
The New Republic
, April 1, 2009.

The chapter is in large part a synthesis of my book on Chávez,
El poder y el delirio
, which was published in 2008 in two editions by Ediciones Alfa (Caracas) and Tusquets Editores. Particularly relevant are three chapters of the book: “Venerador de héroes: Biografía y mitología,” “Marxismo o fascismo: crítica ideológica,” and “La batalla por el pasado: historia y propaganda.”

The most useful biographies of Chávez are, first of all,
Hugo Chávez sin uniforme
, by Cristina Marcano and Alberto Barrera (Debate, Mexico, 2007) and, though it is a hagiography,
¡Hugo! The Hugo Chávez Story from Mud to Perpetual Revolution
, by Bart Jones (Steer Forth Press, New Hampshire, 2007) for much relevant information.